Table 3. Anticarcinogenic effects of CK.
| Cancer type | Cell lines | Mode of action | Ref. |
|---|---|---|---|
| Lung cancer | A549, H1975 | CK induced apoptosis and autophagy via AMPK-mTOR and JNK pathways | (69) |
| CK inhibited growth via HIF-1α-mediated glucose metabolism | (70) | ||
| HCI-H460 | CK induced apoptosis via ROS | (71) | |
| Liver cancer | MHCC97-H | CK induced apoptosis via Fas and mitochondria mediated caspase-dependent pathway | (72) |
| HIT | CK attenuated metastatic growth via translocation of NF-κB p65 and reduction of MMP-2/9 | (73) | |
| HepG2, SMMC-7721 | CK induced ER stress and apoptosis by regulating STAT3 | (74) | |
| Colon cancer | HCT-116, HT-29 | CK blocked cell cycle at the G1 phase and had antiproliferative effects | (75) |
| CK enhanced sensitivity to TRAIL-induced apoptosis via autophagy-dependent and -independent DR5 upregulation | (76) | ||
| HCT-116 | CK induced apoptosis and cycle arrest via down-regulation of CDC25A, CDK4/6, cyclin D1/3, and up-regulation of p53/p21, FoxO3a-p27/p15, and Smad3 | (77) | |
| CK induced autophagy and apoptosis via generation of reactive oxygen species and activation of JNK | (78) | ||
| CK enhanced the effects of fluorouracil | (79) | ||
| HT-29 | CK induced mitochondria-dependent and caspase-dependent apoptosis via the generation of ROS | (80) | |
| CK inhibited growth and inducing apoptosis via inhibition of histone deacetylase activity | (81) | ||
| CK induced apoptosis via CAMK-IV/AMPK pathways | (82) | ||
| SW-480 | CK induced apoptosis and cycle arrest | (83) | |
| Brain tumors | U87MG, U373MG | CK inhibited growth, migration, and stemness via PI3K/ Akt/mTOR pathway | (84) |
| CK suppressed phorbol ester-induced MMP-9 expression by inhibiting AP-1 and MAPK signaling pathways | (85) | ||
| U251MG, U87MG | CK suppressed viability via down-regulation of cell adhesion proteins and cell-cycle arrest | (86) | |
| SK-N-BE(2), SH-SY5Y | CK induced ROS-mediated apoptosis and autophagic inhibition | (87) | |
| C6 | CK attenuated SDF-1-induced migration | (88) | |
| Gastric carcinoma | BGC823, SGC7901 | CK inhibited growth via the Bid-mediated mitochondrial pathway | (89) |
| Osteosarcoma | MG-63 | CK inhibited migration and invasion via the PI3K/mTOR/p70S6K1 signaling pathway | (90) |
| Nasopharyngeal carcinoma | HK-1 | CK induced apoptosis via activation of apoptosis-inducing factor | (91) |
| Bladder cancer | T24 | CK induced apoptosis via the ROS-mediated p38 MAPK pathway | (92) |
| Leukemia | HL-60 | CK induced apoptosis via the caspase-8-dependent pathway | (9) |
| U937 | CK induced G1 phase arrest of the cell cycle via up-regulation of p12 and activation of JNK | (58) | |
| Kasumi-1, MV4-11 | CK inhibited growth via inhibition of synthesis | (93) | |
| Breast cancer | MCF-7 | CK induced programmed necrosis via GSK3β | (94) |
| Myeloma | U266 | CK induced apoptosis via inhibition of JAK1/STAT3 signaling | (95) |
CK, Ginsenoside compound K; AMPK, adenosine monophosphate protein kinase; mTOR, mammalian target of rapamycin; JNK, c-Jun N-terminal kinase; ROS, reactive oxygen species; MMP, metalloproteinase; HIF, hypoxia inducible factor; STAT, signal transducer and activator of transcription; TRAIL, related apoptosis-inducing ligand; DR5, death receptor; CDC, recombinant cell division cycle protein; CDK, cyclin-dependent kinases; FoxO3a, Forkhead box O3; Smad3, drosophila mothers against decapentaplegic; CAMK-IV, calmodulin-activated protein kinase; PI3K, phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase; Akt, protein kinase B; AP-1, activated protein-1; MAPK, mitogen-activated protein kinase; SDF-1, stromal cell derived factors-1; GSK3β, glycogen synthase kinase; JAK, janus kinase.