TABLE 2.

Neuromuscular control of core stability and functional movement and/or athlete performance.

Authors	Study design	Participants	Methodology/Main variables	Outcomes	Main findings
Relationship between core stability and functional movement and/or athletic performance
Abt et al., 2007	Changes in pedaling forces and lower extremity joint kinematics as a result of compromised core stability	15 cyclists, members of local road cycling team	3D Motion Analysis System, dependent kinematic variables: total frontal and sagittal plane motion of the hip and knee and total sagittal plane motion of the ankle; Core fatigue: Isokinetic Torso Rotation Test: Biodex System 3 Multi-Joint Testing and Rehabilitation System; Core fatigue workout: 32 min. circuit of 7 exercises targeting core stabilizer muscles	After the core fatigue workout: significant decrease (30.0–43.3%) in peak torque, total work, average power, maximal repetition total work, and average peak torque; an increase in total frontal plane knee motion and total sagittal plane knee and ankle motion (13.4–54.3%); no significant differences for any pedal force or work data	Core fatigue results in altered cycling mechanics that could increase the risk of knee injury; Improved core stability and endurance could promote greater alignment of the lower extremity when riding for extended duration as the core is more resistant to fatigue
Nesser et al., 2008	The relationships between core stability and various strength and power variables in strength and power athletes	29 male football players of the National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I	3 strength variables: 1 RM squat, 1 RM bench press, 1 MR power clean; 4 performance variables: countermovement jump, 20- and 40-yd sprints, 10-yd shuttle run; Core stability: trunk flexion, back extension, and left and right bridge	There is a number of significant but not consistent and weak to moderate correlations between core strength/stability and strength and performance measures	Significant correlations between core strength/stability, even weak to moderate, suggesting that core strength/stability contributes to strength and power performance
Nesser and Lee, 2009	The relationship between core stability and various strength and power variables	16 National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I female football players trained specifically for strength and power	2 strength variables: 1RM squat, 1RM bench press; 3 performance variables: countermovement jump, 10-yd shuttle run, 40-yd sprints; Core stability: trunk flexion, back extension, left and right bridge	There are no significant correlations between core strength/stability and the strength and performance measures	Determination of the effectiveness of core strength or stability requires further research and sport-specific means
Chaudhari et al., 2011	The relationship between lumbopelvic control and pitching performance	48 pitchers who pitched 50 or more innings in Minor League competition of A, AA, or AAA levels	Lumbopelvic control: Level Belt secured to the waist, transition from two-leg to single-leg pitching stance, balance while maintaining a stable pelvic position; Pitching performance: number of innings pitched (IP) during season; Median Level Belt score for the study group 7°	Significantly fewer walks plus hits per inning and significantly more IP during the season in subjects scoring <7° on the Level Belt test than those scoring >7°	Lumbopelvic control influences performance of baseball pitchers; Simple test of lumbopelvic control can identify individuals with better chance of pitching success
Ozmen, 2016	The relationships between core stability, jumping performance and dynamic balance	17 male soccer players	Dynamic balance: Star excursion balance test (SEBT); Core stability: McGill’s protocol; Jumping ability: squat jump test on contact mat	Significant negative correlation between trunk flexion test and jumping height (r = −0.705); No significant correlation between side bridge, trunk extension tests and jumping height, and between trunk flexion, side bridge, trunk extension tests and SEBT results	Trunk flexion is associated with squat jump height but not with side bridge and trunk extension tests; Core stability does not contribute to dynamic balance
Anand et al., 2017	The relationship between bowling speed in cricket and core stability	82 cricket medium and medium fast bowlers of district and universities	Core stability: plank test (prone plank, left side plank and right side plank); Bowling speed: BUSHNELL Velocity Speed Gun	There is significant positive correlation between core stability and the bowling speed (r = 0.736)	Bowling speed is significantly higher in subjects with well-developed than poorly-developed core stability
de Bruin et al., 2021	The relationship between athletic performance and core stability	83 female athletes from the university teams: hockey (n = 24), netball (n = 16), running (n = 11), soccer (n = 15), and tennis (n = 17)	Core strength and endurance: Biering-Sørensen tests - isometric back extension (IBE), lateral flexion (LF) and abdominal flexion (AF); Core neuromuscular control (NMC): Welch Allyn FlexiPort pressure biofeedback unit; Athletic performance: T-test, 40 m sprint, medicine ball chest throw (MBCT) and vertical jump (VJ)	Most weak correlations in all sports (r = 0.10–0.39); Very strong correlation between VJ and LF (r = 0.90); Moderate correlations in all sports between core strength, endurance and motor control and certain athletic performance tests (r = 0.40–0.69)	Correlations between core stability and athletic performance are negligible or weak; Athletic performance in different sports is associated with different components of core stability
Effect of core stability training on functional movement and/or athletic performance
Stanton et al., 2004	The effect of short term Swiss ball training (SBT) on core stability and running economy	18 male athletes from Basketball and Touch Football School of Excellence in Sport program: EG (n = 8), CG (n = 10)	SBT sessions 6 weeks, two times a week, approximately 25 min. during regular training, supervised by researcher; Core stability: 5 level Sahrmann core stability test with Stabilizer Pressure Biofeedback Unit; Maximal aerobic power (VO2max) and running economy (RE): incremental treadmill running test to volitional exhaustion	Significant effect of SBT on core stability in the EG; No significant differences in myoelectric activity of abdominal and back muscles, treadmill VO2max, RE, or running posture in both EG and CG	SBT has positive effect on core stability without improvements of physical performance
Saeterbakken et al., 2011	The effect of core stabilization training (CST) on maximal throwing velocity	24 female high-school handball players randomly divided into a CST (n = 14) and a control group (CG, n = 10)	6-week regular handball training in both groups; Additional progressive core stability training program in the CST group (twice a week for 75-min, 6 unstable closed kinetic chain exercises); Throwing velocity: 2 photocell arrays with an accuracy of ± 0.001 s	There is a significant increase of maximal throwing velocity in the CST group (4.9%) but not in the CG	CST using unstable, closed kinetic chain movements improves maximal throwing velocity; Stronger and more stable lumbopelvic hip complex may contribute to higher rotational velocity in multisegmental movements
Sannicandro and Cofano, 2017	The effects of integrative training of core stability on jump performance	44 young basketball players (19 female, 25 male); EG, n = 21 (11 female, 10 male), CG, n = 23 (11 female, 12 male)	4-week CST in stable and unstable conditions during warm-up (8 sessions, twice a week), followed by basketball drills with CG (60 min); Jump performance: monopodalic jumps (triple hop test, side hop test, and 6m timed hop test) and bipodalic jump (Seargent vertical jump)	Significant improvements in the right and left hop test, the 6m-timed hop left and right test in the EG; A significant improvement in vertical jump in the CG	Core stability program is effective in improving monopodalic jump ability in prepubertal basketball players
Vitale et al., 2018	The effects of neuromuscular training program on dynamic balance and vertical jump performance	24 elite junior male skiers randomized in an experimental group (EG, n = 12) and a control group (CG, n = 12)	8-week training program (16 sessions, 3 phases); partly different exercises on core stability, body-weight strengthening and plyometric exercises on dynamic postural control and vertical jump performance in each phase; circuit training form during warming up (30 min); Dynamic balance: lower quarter Y-Balance test (YBT) with standardized testing protocol; Jumping performance: countermovement (CMJ) and drop jump (DJ) on Optojump Next	Positive effects on pre to post measures in anterior, postero-medial, postero-lateral directions, and composite YBT score for both lower limbs in the EG; No significant changes in the CG; No significant changes in CMJ and DJ in both EG and CG	There is a positive effect of neuromuscular training on dynamic balance ability but not on vertical jump performance; It may be effective in increasing lower limb joint awareness and postural control
Kuhn et al., 2019	The effects of core stabilization training (CST) on maximal throwing velocity and core strength parameters	20 female handball players from German non-elite handball squad	6-week CST (twice a week for 45 min., 9 specific core and rotational exercises for ventral, dorsal and lateral core muscles chain on an unstable surface); Maximum voluntary isometric strength (MIS) of the trunk using isometric dynamometer Beck-check 607; Endurance strength of ventral, dorsal and lateral core chains using a Swiss Olympic Medical Center core performance test battery; Throwing velocity using OPTOJump Next	A significant improvement in MIS of left lateral core muscle chain in the EGcompared to the CG; A significant improvement in MIS of ventral core endurance (35%) and the lateral right core muscles (21%) in the EG; A significant increase in throwing velocity of jump throw in both EG (12%) and CG (8%) but not velocity of standing throw	CST effectively increases isometric strength and endurance of core muscles but does not enhance throwing velocity when compared to standard training
Felion and DeBeliso, 2020	The effect of core training (CT) program on force production in torsional movements	Students, members of baseball team at Granger HS, UT, United States	Experimental group (EG): 6-week CT program (twice a week, 1 h/day), in addition to specific training; Control group (CG): 6-week baseball specific training only (twice a week, 2 h/day). Throwing velocity (TV) and ball-exit velocity (BEV) using Stalker Sport II radar gun; BEV: speed of the ball immediately after being struck by the baseball bat	Neither EG nor CG increase in TV following the 6-week CT intervention; A significant increase in BEV in the EG but not in the CG	Implementing of CT with additional rotational exercises with free weights, resistance bands, or medicine balls leads to additional gains in torso rotational strength and potentially improvement in BEV