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Immune responses in the GBM. GBM antigens are drained by meningeal lymphatics, and classical DC-1s (cDC1s) present antigen to CD8+ T cells in the deep cervical lymph node. However, due to the strong blood–brain barrier (BBB), immune cell infiltration into the parenchyma is limited. In addition, the predominant microglia suppress immune responses. However, enhancing lymphatics via VEGF-C treatment has shown promising results to improve survival in animal models.
