Table 3.
Summary of evidence on the main effects of music interventions in patients experiencing PTSD symptomatology.
| Author (s), Year | Study Design | Type of Effect | Measure of Effect | Interpretation of Main Findings |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Baker et al., 2018 | Systematic Review of 7 interventional studies | Decrease in severity of PTSD | Effect sizes ranged from low-medium effect (PTSD measures used: IES-R and PTSD-8) | Significant reduction in symptoms of PTSD when there was ongoing therapist involvement compared to when there was little therapist or no therapist involvement. |
| Story & Beck, 2017 | Mixed methods | Improved coping Improved emotional regulation Decrease in severity of PTSD |
Change in PTSD symptoms, ES = 1.0 | Participants reported experiencing music as a tool for coping with PTSD symptoms, regulating emotions, decreasing arousal, expressing repressed feelings, and connecting with others. |
| Pourmovahed et al., 2021 | Randomized control trial | Improved emotional regulation Decrease in severity of PTSD Decreased anxiety levels |
Severity of the PTSD decreased significantly after the intervention in the experimental group (F 1, 57 = 1046, p = 0.003) Difference between the two groups (F1, 07 = 1058, p < 0.03) confirmed significant effect of the non-verbal music on decreasing the PTSD severity |
Listening to non-verbal music reduced severity of PTSD and the mother’s stress consequently promoting emotional bonding between the mother and baby. |
| Bensimon et al., 2008 | Mixed method | Improved emotional regulation Decreased anxiety levels |
Reducing the client’s self-reported anxiety during confrontation with feared stimuli Effect measures not reported |
Coping with difficulties such as feelings of loneliness, harsh traumatic memories, outbursts of anger, and loss of control. |
| Carr et al., 2012 | Mixed method study | Decrease in severity of PTSD Decrease in depression |
IES-R significant reduction from baseline of (−17.20; 95% CI: [−24.94, −9.45; p = 0.0012]) Reduction in BDI-II symptom severity (−0.71) |
Music and guided imagery can improve symptoms of Complex PTSD and dissociation, alleviate interpersonal problems, and enhance factors that promote health. |
| Rudstam et al., 2017 | Mixed method study | Decrease in severity of PTSD Decrease in depression Decreased anxiety levels Decreased dissociation symptoms Improved quality of life |
Pre-post Comparisons
|
Significant decreases in PTSD symptoms with very large effect sizes, and dissociation with large effect sizes, and an increase in quality of life with small to medium effect size. Music helped establish contact with feelings and body sensations and provided an experience of expansion, relaxation, and new energy. |
| Maack, 2012 | Mixed method study | Decrease in severity of PTSD Decreased dissociation symptoms Improved quality of life |
Kruskal–Wallis-Test shows that there was a significant difference in change of severity of symptoms between the groups (p < 0.001). KW test statistic not reported. Mann–Whitney Tests shows that there was a significant difference in change of severity of symptoms between the GIM and the control group (U = 1.50, p < 0.001). |
The symptoms of the participants of the GIM group improved significantly more than the symptoms of the participants of the PITT group. |
| Beck et al., 2017 | Pre- post-test study | Decrease in severity of PTSD Improved quality of life |
Pre-post Comparisons
|
Significant changes in positive directions on all four outcome measures, PTSD symptoms, sleep quality, well-being, and social functioning. |
| Macfarlane et al., 2019 | Pre- post-test study | Decrease in severity of PTSD | Average reduction of PTSD symptoms of 38% between the entrance screening and the final point of the intervention, using PSS-I | A drop of ten points or more on PSS-I score for eight of the participants, among which five had a final scored below PTSD threshold. Applicable in a complex clinical setting with a very mixed and treatment resistant population, who were not eligible for EMDR or another type of trauma treatment, at the moment of enrollment. |
| Blanaru et al., 2012 | Mixed method study | Decrease in depression | Significant reduction in BDI score for depression following music relaxation compared with baseline [F (1,11) = 14.8, p< 0.003] |
Music relaxation was found to be effective and led to significant improvements in sleep measures and significant reduction of depression score in PTSD patients. |
| Beck et al., 2021 | Randomized control trial | Decreased dissociation symptoms Improved quality of life |
Music group well-being, large effect size
|
Small to large effect sizes in both psychological treatment group and music therapy group, with significant medium effect sizes, for well-being and psychoform dissociation at follow-up. A high dropout rate of 40% occurred in the psychological treatment group, compared to 5% in the music therapy group. |
| Zergani & Naderi, 2016 | Randomized control trial | Decreased anxiety levels Improved quality of life |
Significant difference between experiment and control groups for anxiety symptoms (F-13.67; p < 0.0001), STAI scale, and quality of life (F-26.99; p < 0.0001), SF-36 scale | The effect of music remained stable even after one month of follow-up. |
PCL-5: PTSD Checklist for DSM-5; DES: Dissociative Experience Scale; DES-T: Dissociative Experience Scale Taxon; HSCL-25: Hopkins Symptom Checklist; PSOMS: Positive State of Mind Scale; IES-R: Impact of Event Scale–Revised; PTSD-8: Post-traumatic Stress Disorder 8-item; BDI: Beck Depression Inventory, HTQ: Harvard Trauma Questionnaire; STAI: State-Trait Anxiety Inventory; SF-36: Short Form Health Survey is a 36-item; WHO-5: WHO Well-being Index; ES: Effect Size using Cohen’s d.