Table 3.

Nanodelivery systems of phytoconstituents and their role in microbial biofilm resistance.

Phytoconstituent	Nanodelivery System	Bacterial Sp.	Outcome	Reference
Nano punica granatum and nano garlic herbal extract	Nanoemulsification	Enterococcus faecalis and Staphylococcus epidermidis	Significantly (p < 0.001) higher dead bacterial count was witnessed withnano-herbal extracts when compared to medicated calcium hydroxide gel. Insignificant differences were observed between pomegranate and garlic extract.	[106]
Eugenol	Nanoemulsion	S. aureus and E. coli	The eugenol nanoemulsion gel showed improved antibacterial activity (double) compared to eugenol solution. The small size helped in fusion with bacterial cells and the surfactants in the formulation disrupted the cell membrane.	[100]
Cinnamon, clove	Silver nanoparticles	Streptococcus mutans	Cinnamon and clove silver nanoparticles exhibited wider zones of inhibition (10 mm) compared to amoxycillin (8 mm), suggestive of good antibacterial efficiency.	[107]
Syzygium cumini	Silver nanoparticles	C. albicans and S. mutans	The extracts encapsulated in silver nanoparticles exhibited improved antimicrobial properties, as suggested by a ratio of MIC of 0.98 for silver nanoparticles to seed extracts.	[108]
Mentha spp.	Solid lipid nanostructure	Streptococcus mutans and Streptococcus pyogenes	The findings demonstrated that Mentha essential oil loaded in nanostructure increased theantibacterial activity (zone of inhibition 20 mm, compared to 10 mm shown by essential oil solution).	[109]
Tea tree oil	Nanoparticles	P. aeruginosa	Tea tree oil nanoparticles reduced the motility of bacteria (by 62%) and adhesion of biofilms, which was otherwise not detected on using bare oil.	[110]
Tea tree oil	Nanoparticles	P. gingivalis, A. actinomycetemcomitan, F. nucleatum	Nanoparticles were prepared with size of 198 nm. Small size allowed penetration within the biofilm matrix and the bacterial viability was 26%, compared to 51% shown by M. alternifolia oil.	[111]
Lemongrass oil (Citral)	Chitosan nanoparticles	Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria	Chitosan nanoparticles increased the thermal stability of oil. The antimicrobial properties increased sinificantly (p < 0.001) when compared to bare oil.	[112]
Lemongrass oil	Nanocapsule	P. aeruginosa, E. coli, C. albicans, S. aureus	The lemongrass oil reduced the MIC by almost half when loaded in nanocapsules. The biofilm formation was also reduced by 2 times for all the species except P. aeruginosa.	[113]
Eucalyptus oil (eucalyptol, α-pinene, and δ-limonene)	Nanoemulsion	P. aeruginosa, Candida spp.