Table 4.
Association between the socio-demographic status and the COVID-19 mental health impact among the study participants in bivariate logistic regression analysis.
| Variable | Depression |
Anxiety |
Insomnia |
Stress |
|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | OR (95% CI) | ||
| Age | 1.03∗∗∗ (1.01–1.04) | 1.02∗∗ (1.01–1.04) | 1.03∗ (1.01–1.04) | 1.01 (0.99–1.02) | |
| Sex | Female | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
| Male | 0.74 (0.52–1.06) | 0.95 (0.64–1.39) | 0.68 (0.44–1.05) | 0.97 (0.68–1.38) | |
| Education | Illiterate | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
| Primary to higher secondary | 0.64 (0.32–1.26) | 0.54 (0.27–1.07) | 0.36 (0.18–1.74) | 0.62 (0.31–1.24) | |
| Graduation or more | 0.46∗ (0.23–0.92) | 0.33∗∗ (0.17–0.67) | 0.31∗∗ (0.15–0.64) | 0.43∗ (0.22–0.87) | |
| Marital Status | Unmarried | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
| Married | 1.85∗ (1.02–3.35) | 0.87 (0.48–1.56) | 1.70 (0.78–3.71) | 0.87 (0.50–1.50) | |
| Separated/Widowed | 4.94∗∗ (1.92–12.72) | 1.84 (0.75–4.54) | 2.73 (0.93–8.04) | 1.35 (0.56–3.28) | |
| Occupation | Student | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
| Job holder | 1.29 (0.57–2.90) | 0.77 (0.32–1.86) | 3.41 (0.78–14.95) | 0.43∗ (0.20–0.94) | |
| Business | 1.09 (0.45–2.64) | 2.53∗ (1.01–6.34) | 3.12 (0.67–14.64) | 0.70 (0.30–1.63) | |
| Housewife | 2.10 (0.92–4.80) | 1.12 (0.46–2.73) | 4.64∗ (1.05–20.53) | 0.72 (0.33–1.59) | |
| In retirement | 2.26 (0.90–5.69) | 1.56 (0.59–4.16) | 6.11∗ (1.30–28.69) | 0.50 (0.20–1.22) | |
| Others (politicians, social workers etc.) | 2.73 (0.89–8.34) | 4.47∗ (1.40–14.28) | 4.03 (0.71–22.99) | 7.58∗ (1.51–38.18) | |
| Average number of family member | 1.09 (0.99–1.20) | 1.13∗ (1.02–1.24) | 1.04 (0.94–1.16) | 1.12∗∗ (1.07–1.30) | |
| Average number of under five children in the family | 1.19 (0.99–1.44) | 1.09 (0.90–1.33) | 0.95 (0.75–1.20) | 1.33∗∗ (1.09–1.61) | |
| Family member got infected by COVID-19 | No | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
| Yes | 1.05 (0.73–1.54) | 0.90 (0.60–1.35) | 2.21∗∗∗ (1.42–3.43) | 0.82 (0.57–1.19) | |
| Exposed to any known COVID-19 patients before getting infected | No | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
| Yes | 0.78 (0.54–1.12) | 0.77 (0.52–1.14) | 1.00 (0.65–1.56) | 0.57∗ (0.34–0.82) | |
| Comorbidities | None | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
| At least one | 1.53 (0.99–2.35) | 1.50 (0.94–2.39) | 1.82∗ (1.01–3.28) | 1.10 (0.72–1.68) | |
| Two or more | 1.84∗∗ (1.19–2.83) | 2.14∗∗ (1.35–3.89) | 4.82∗∗∗ (2.81–8.28) | 1.32 (0.86–2.03) | |
| Personal habit (smoking) | No | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
| Yes | 0.62 (0.37–1.05) | 0.32∗ (0.16–0.63) | 0.25∗ (0.10–0.63) | 0.82 (0.50–1.35) | |
| Living during COVID-19 period | Alone | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
| With family | 3.00∗ (1.20–7.50) | 2.89 (0.99–8.46) | 7.77∗ (1.05–57.82) | 1.47 (0.68–3.17) | |
| Neighbors/acquaintance got infected by COVID-19 | No | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
| Yes | 1.57∗ (1.03–2.40) | 2.12∗ (1.29–3.47) | 1.44 (0.84–2.47) | 0.88 (0.58–1.32) | |
| Family members/relatives died by COVID-19 | No | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
| Yes | 0.95 (0.64–1.40) | 1.16 (0.77–1.75) | 0.90 (0.56–1.45) | 0.84 (0.57–1.23) | |
| Currently under stress | No | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
| Yes | 1.31 (0.92–1.88) | 2.53∗∗∗ (1.71–3.72) | 2.08∗ (1.34–3.22) | 3.12∗∗∗ (2.16–4.50) | |
| Use of social media during COVID situation | Same as before | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
| Using a bit more than before | 0.80 (0.48–1.34) | 0.86 (0.49–1.54) | 1.11 (0.59–2.11) | 0.75 (0.44–1.25) | |
| Using much more than before | 0.97 (0.48–1.96) | 1.58 (0.76–3.27) | 1.71 (0.76–3.83) | 1.88 (0.94–3.76) | |
| Do not use any social media | 1.47 (0.96–2.24) | 1.51 (0.96–2.39) | 1.35 (0.80–2.29) | 1.88∗∗ (1.23–2.87) | |
| Number of times you leave domicile each day | None | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. | Ref. |
| One or more than one times/day | 0.55∗∗ (0.39–0.79) | 0.55∗∗ (0.37–0.81) | 0.49∗∗ (0.32–0.76) | 0.57∗∗ (0.40–0.82) | |
∗ p-value<0.05, ∗∗ p-value<0.01, ∗∗∗ p-value<0.001.
OR = Odds ratio, CI = Confidence interval.