. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2022 Jul 9.

Published in final edited form as: Chem Rev. 2021 Oct 22;122(5):5233–5276. doi: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.1c00365

Table 2.

Classification of Tissue-Like Systems with the Soft–Hard Interaction Framework

Soft–hard interfaces	soft components	hard components	Soft–hard interaction framework
wavy Si nanoribbon/PDMS interface²⁰⁰	PDMS or other elastomers	Si nanoribbons	cooperative integration: SH > SS and SH > HH
complex 3D structures through compressive buckling²¹⁴	PDMS or other elastomers	diverse inorganic materials for electronic components	directed organization: SS > SH > HH
3D bendable nanoelectronics²¹⁶	SU-8	metal layers that yield strong residual stress	directed organization: HH > SH > SS
intrinsically stretchable electronics through nanoconfinement effect²¹⁷	elastomer phase	conjugated polymer	Cooperative integration: SH > SS and SH > HH
strain-insensitive intrinsically stretchable transistor array²¹⁸	elastomer substrate with patterned stiffness	conjugated polymer	deterministic assembly: SS > SH and HH > SH
stretchable electronics for neonatal intensive care²⁰³	elastomer and ionic liquid	metal and other circuit components	deterministic assembly: SS > SH and HH > SH
PVA/Au nanomesh prior to PVA dissolution²¹⁹	PVA nanofibers	Au layers	directed organization: SS > SH > HH
laser-engraved graphene-based sensor²²⁰	polyimide	graphene layers	directed organization: SS > SH > HH
self-healing electronics²²¹	self-healing elastomer (e.g., PDMS-MPU0.4-IU0.6)	carbon nanotubes and Ag nanowires	directed organization: SS > SH > HH
stretchable hydrogel electronics²²²	hydrogel	electronic and optoelectronic devices	deterministic assembly: SS > SH and HH > SH
conductive on-skin tape through direct drawing²²³	skin and polymer components of the ink	Ag flakes	directed organization: SS > SH > HH
macroporous nanoelectronic scaffold²¹²	SU-8	metal layers	deterministic assembly: SS > SH and HH > SH
macroporous nanoelectronic scaffold²¹²	SU-8	metal layers	directed organization: HH > SH > SS
neuron-like electronics²²⁴	SU-8	metal layers	deterministic assembly: SS > SH and HH > SH
neural recording from the neuron-like electronics²²⁴	neurons	metal recording device	signal transduction: SS → SH → HH
multilayered Si membrane⁸⁵	porous PDMS	Si nanostructured membrane	deterministic assembly: SS > SH and HH > SH
neuromodulation from the multilayered Si membrane⁸⁵	isolated neurons or neural tissues	Si nanostructured membrane	signal transduction: SS → SH → HH
organogenesis-directed formation of 3D bioelectronics²²⁵	growing cardiac organoid	Au and Pt electrodes	directed organization: SS > SH > HH
nanowire-polymer mesh¹⁸⁸	SU-8 mesh	Si nanowires	deterministic assembly: SS > SH and HH > SH
optically triggered cardiac training from nanowire-polymer mesh¹⁸⁸	cardiomyocytes and cardiac tissues	Si nanowires	signal transduction: HH → SH→ SS
phagocytosis-enabled nanowire/cell composite^85,226-228	mammalian cells	Si nanowires	cooperative integration: SH > SS and SH > HH
genetically targeted assembly of polymers²²⁹	neurons or neural tissues	conjugated polymers	directed organization: SS > SH > HH
phototactic actuation from a hydrogel composite pillar²³⁰	PNIPAAm	Au nanoparticles	signal transduction: HH → SH→ SS
ferromagnetic soft continuum robot²³¹	polymers and hydrogels	magnetic microparticles	signal transduction: HH → SH→ SS
magnetically steerable helical microswimmers²³²	mouse macrophages and primary splenocytes	helical magnetic microparticles	cooperative integration: SH > SS and SH > HH