Table 1. Prevalence and correlates of economic hardships during the COVID-19 pandemic, 2020, Japan.
| Respondent distribution | Income lossa | Money shortageb | Financial anxietyc | Financial exploitationd | Non-receipt of the cash reliefe | ||||||
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| N (%) | Prevalence (%) | APR (95% CI) | Prevalence (%) | APR (95% CI) | Prevalence (%) | APR (95% CI) | Prevalence(%) | APR (95% CI) | Prevalence (%) | APR (95% CI) | |
| Overall | 25,482 (100) | 25.0 | — | 9.6 | — | 7.9 | — | 3.1 | — | 13.6 | — |
| Sex | |||||||||||
| Male | 12,673 (49.7) | 23.9 | Ref. | 11.4 | Ref. | 5.6 | Ref. | 5.0 | Ref. | 17.7 | Ref. |
| Female | 12,809 (50.3) | 26.0 | 1.28 (1.14–1.45) | 7.9 | 1.07 (0.78–1.46) | 10.2 | 2.02 (1.56–2.62) | 1.2 | 0.45 (0.32–0.64) | 9.5 | 0.58 (0.46–0.74) |
| Age, years | |||||||||||
| 15–24 | 2,813 (10.9) | 21.4 | 1.08 (0.71–1.65) | 26.0 | 4.42 (1.85–10.6) | 7.5 | 2.06 (1.09–3.90) | 3.9 | 5.14 (1.90–13.92) | 35.8 | 5.11 (3.06–8.53) |
| 25–34 | 3,405 (13.2) | 21.5 | 0.97 (0.72–1.29) | 18.1 | 2.46 (1.13–5.36) | 10.8 | 2.38 (1.28–4.44) | 13.4 | 16.04 (9.08–28.35) | 28.4 | 4.11 (2.39–7.09) |
| 35–44 | 4,278 (16.9) | 26.4 | 1.16 (0.92–1.45) | 5.9 | 1.20 (0.58–2.47) | 9.9 | 2.00 (1.08–3.73) | 2.2 | 4.94 (2.79–8.74) | 9.4 | 1.94 (1.15–3.26) |
| 45–54 | 4,817 (18.9) | 30.2 | 1.36 (1.10–1.68) | 6.3 | 1.28 (0.65–2.52) | 9.6 | 1.99 (1.11–3.58) | 1.3 | 2.98 (1.67–5.32) | 8.3 | 1.66 (0.99–2.76) |
| 55–64 | 4,017 (15.4) | 27.1 | 1.23 (0.99–1.50) | 4.6 | 0.86 (0.46–1.60) | 6.3 | 1.27 (0.72–2.25) | 1.1 | 2.40 (1.31–4.37) | 7.9 | 1.52 (0.90–2.59) |
| ≥65 | 6,152 (24.8) | 22.2 | Ref. | 6.1 | Ref. | 4.7 | Ref. | 0.4 | Ref. | 6.3 | Ref. |
| Education | |||||||||||
| Junior high/high school | 8,291 (48.4) | 23.6 | 0.90 (0.77–1.04) | 6.8 | 0.68 (0.47–1.00) | 7.8 | 1.09 (0.81–1.45) | 2.6 | 1.60 (1.14–2.25) | 11.8 | 0.97 (0.73–1.29) |
| Some college | 5,387 (18.2) | 26.0 | 0.89 (0.78–1.02) | 7.1 | 0.79 (0.56–1.12) | 10.3 | 1.11 (0.83–1.47) | 2.0 | 1.52 (1.04–2.21) | 9.3 | 0.92 (0.70–1.23) |
| College or higher | 11,742 (33.4) | 26.6 | Ref. | 15.3 | Ref. | 6.7 | Ref. | 4.4 | Ref. | 18.3 | Ref. |
| Income level in the past yearf | |||||||||||
| ≥Baseline income (≥twice the baseline) | 12,585 (46.7) | 28.6 | Ref. | 10.6 | Ref. | 7.8 | Ref. | 3.8 | Ref. | 12.5 | Ref. |
| ≥Baseline income (<twice the baseline) | 5,702 (23.1) | 29.6 | 1.10 (0.95–1.27) | 9.4 | 1.10 (0.76–1.60) | 9.4 | 1.34 (0.97–1.84) | 1.4 | 0.62 (0.35–1.10) | 9.1 | 0.89 (0.65–1.22) |
| <Baseline income | 1,921 (8.3) | 24.1 | 0.95 (0.78–1.16) | 20.3 | 1.71 (1.19–2.45) | 9.5 | 1.46 (1.07–1.98) | 8.6 | 1.63 (0.93–2.85) | 26.6 | 1.61 (1.24–2.08) |
| Indeterminate (did not answer) | 5,274 (22) | 12.8 | 0.47 (0.37–0.58) | 3.8 | 0.52 (0.37–0.73) | 5.7 | 0.75 (0.58–0.97) | 1.4 | 0.79 (0.44–1.40) | 15.6 | 1.59 (1.31–1.93) |
| Marital status | |||||||||||
| Married | 15,230 (63.2) | 26.9 | Ref. | 6.4 | Ref. | 8.7 | Ref. | 1.4 | Ref. | 7.7 | Ref. |
| Single | 7,806 (23.7) | 23.1 | 0.94 (0.78–1.13) | 7.1 | 0.57 (0.33–0.99) | 7.4 | 0.65 (0.53–0.80) | 2.9 | 1.19 (0.89–1.58) | 17.8 | 1.05 (0.89–1.24) |
| Divorced/widowed | 2,446 (13.1) | 19.0 | 0.58 (0.41–0.82) | 29.8 | 1.72 (1.11–2.67) | 4.6 | 0.41 (0.28–0.61) | 11.8 | 1.80 (1.14–2.84) | 34.0 | 2.32 (1.72–3.14) |
| Employment status | |||||||||||
| Full-time employee | 9,513 (34.9) | 24.1 | Ref. | 8.3 | Ref. | 7.6 | Ref. | 3.6 | Ref. | 14.5 | Ref. |
| Self-employed | 1,645 (7.9) | 47.1 | 2.08 (1.70–2.54) | 17.6 | 1.58 (0.98–2.55) | 11.8 | 1.86 (1.16–2.98) | 7.4 | 1.15 (0.55–2.39) | 12.1 | 0.71 (0.32–1.58) |
| Part-time employee, contractor | 4,296 (19.1) | 28.2 | 1.15 (0.99–1.34) | 13.6 | 1.48 (1.01–2.15) | 8.8 | 0.91 (0.73–1.12) | 4.2 | 0.90 (0.49–1.65) | 13.3 | 0.93 (0.71–1.22) |
| Non-working | 10,028 (38.2) | 19.6 | 0.88 (0.76–1.03) | 7.2 | 1.18 (0.75–1.87) | 6.9 | 0.86 (0.65–1.13) | 1.2 | 0.81 (0.51–1.30) | 13.1 | 1.17 (0.97–1.42) |
| Cumulative COVID-19 cases in residing areag | |||||||||||
| 1st tertile (1–12 cases per 100,000) | 5,245 (33.8) | 24.1 | Ref. | 6.5 | Ref. | 8.6 | Ref. | 2.0 | Ref. | 9.7 | Ref. |
| 2nd tertile (13–29 cases per 100,000) | 5,116 (22.1) | 23.6 | 0.98 (0.85–1.12) | 7.4 | 1.00 (0.69–1.45) | 7.1 | 0.82 (0.65–1.05) | 1.6 | 0.76 (0.46–1.25) | 12.2 | 1.09 (0.84–1.42) |
| 3rd tertile (30–149 cases per 100,000) | 15,121 (44.1) | 26.4 | 1.08 (0.96–1.21) | 13.2 | 1.10 (0.76–1.60) | 7.7 | 0.95 (0.72–1.26) | 4.7 | 1.07 (0.76–1.50) | 17.2 | 1.27 (1.07–1.51) |
| History of physical conditionh | |||||||||||
| Never | 17,840 (67.8) | 24.5 | Ref. | 7.2 | Ref. | 7.7 | Ref. | 1.6 | Ref. | 12.4 | Ref. |
| Past | 4,566 (17.0) | 23.0 | 0.93 (0.81–1.07) | 9.2 | 1.19 (0.88–1.62) | 9.3 | 1.21 (0.98–1.50) | 4.3 | 1.78 (1.30–2.43) | 11.6 | 1.04 (0.73–1.49) |
| Present | 3,076 (15.2) | 29.2 | 1.16 (0.94–1.42) | 20.9 | 1.24 (0.65–2.36) | 6.9 | 1.00 (0.66–1.51) | 8.5 | 2.46 (1.72–3.53) | 20.8 | 1.11 (0.77–1.59) |
| History of mental conditionh | |||||||||||
| Never | 22,342 (85.1) | 24.1 | Ref. | 6.7 | Ref. | 7.2 | Ref. | 1.5 | Ref. | 11.6 | Ref. |
| Past | 1,691 (7.2) | 27.6 | 1.12 (0.92–1.35) | 15.6 | 1.81 (1.26–2.61) | 11.2 | 1.37 (1.08–1.75) | 8.5 | 2.30 (1.66–3.18) | 14.1 | 1.08 (0.70–1.67) |
| Present | 1,449 (7.7) | 32.8 | 1.30 (1.00–1.70) | 35.9 | 1.56 (0.64–3.79) | 12.2 | 1.86 (0.97–3.56) | 15.7 | 2.65 (1.75–4.02) | 35.1 | 1.20 (0.83–1.74) |
APR, adjusted prevalence ratio; CI, confidence interval; COVID-19, coronavirus disease 2019; Ref, reference.
The prevalence and prevalence ratios were weighted to account for selection in an internet survey. Adjusted prevalence ratios and 95% confidence intervals were calculated using Poisson regression models adjusted for all the tabulation variables presented. Results in bold type indicate P < 0.05. See also eTable 1 for detailed definitions of economic hardship measures.
aIncome loss was assessed by asking respondents whether their income had decreased compared to that before the COVID-19 pandemic.
bMoney shortage to buy things or pay bills was defined as any problems to pay for items including rent/mortgage, food, medical/dental fees, tuition, and other necessities. Percentages that reported experiencing such problems for the first time during the COVID-19 pandemic were calculated.
cFinancial anxiety was assessed by asking respondents whether they had felt anxious about the household budget during April–September 2020.
dFinancial exploitation was defined as an event that respondents’ saving or pension was used or taken by someone including their family without their permission.
eNon-receipt of the cash relief ($930 across-the-board handout) was defined as a denial to the question asking whether respondents had received the relief by the time of survey.
fPast-year income level was classified using the 2018 national baseline income (poverty line).
gCumulative COVID-19 cases during January 1st–August 25th, 2020 were calculated for each of the prefectures of respondents’ residence.
hHistory of illness was assessed with aggregate variables for physical illness (any cancer or malignant tumor, diabetes, asthma, bronchitis, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, angina, myocardial infarction, and/or cerebral infarction) and mental illness (depression or any other mental disorder).