Table 4. Determinants of depression according to the biopsychosocial approach.
| No | Author/year | Screening tool | Outcome definition of depression | Significant variables associated with depression | Statistical value | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1. | Li et al. (2016) [27] | 20-item Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression (CES-D) scale | 16/21/25 for mild, moderate, and severe depression | Psychological | Perceived stress | AOR: 1.17, 95% CI = 1.12, 1.22, P = 0.001 |
| Enacted stigma | AOR: 7.72, 95% CI = 2.27, 26.25, P<0.001 | |||||
| Gratitude | AOR: 0.90, 95% CI = 0.86, 0.94, P<0.001 | |||||
| 2. | Tao et al. (2017) [28] | Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) | A score of 0 to 7 was defined as normal, 8 to 10 as borderline depression, and a score of 11 to 21 as suspected depression. | Psychological | Internalized stigma | AOR: 1.09, 95%CI: 1.07, 1.12, P<0.001. |
| Vicarious stigma from the community/health care | AOR: 1.06, 95%CI: 1.03, 1.10, P<0.001 | |||||
| 3. | Wang et al. (2019) [29] | Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) | A score of 0 to 7 was defined as normal, 8 to 10 as borderline depression, and a score of 11 to 21 as suspected depression. | Psychological | Self-efficacy | AOR: 0.88, 95% CI: 0.85, 0.92, P<0.001 |
| 4. | Luo et al. (2020) [30] | Patient Health Questionnaires Depression Scale (PHQ-9) | A score of 10 the cut-off score for significant depressive symptoms | Biological | Received ART during the first year after diagnosis. | β = −2.14, P = 0.008 |
| Psychological | Participants who had access to mental health care after diagnosis were more likely to improve depression. | β = −3.51, P = 0.003 | ||||
| Increases in social stress scores were associated with increases in depression. | β = 0.43, P<0.001 | |||||
| Social | Increases in support were associated with decreases in PHQ-9 score. | β = −0.37, P<0.001 | ||||
| 5. | Rood et al. (2015) [31] | Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression (CES-D) scale | A total score ranging from 0 to 60, and a clinical cut-off score of 23, instead of 16, was used to indicate probable depression. | Psychological | High Functional/High Dysfunctional coping strategies | β = 0.36, t = 4.47, P< 0.01 |
| Low Functional/High Dysfunctional coping strategies | β = 0.50, t = 6.34, P< 0.01 | |||||
| 6. | Irwin et al. (2018) [32] | Center for Epidemiological Studies-Depression (CES-D) scale | A score≥ 16 represents a higher risk of depression. | Biological | Older age | OR: 0·98, 95% CI: 0·96, 0·99, P<0.05 |
| Viral load > 10,000 copies/ml | OR: 1·38, 95%CI: 1·04, 1·85, P<0.05 | |||||
| Psychological | Sleep disturbance | OR: 1·52, 95%CI: 1·29, 1·80, P<0.001 | ||||
| Current smoker | OR: 1·61, 95% CI: 1·12, 2·33, P<0.05 | |||||
| Social | Black ethnicity | OR: 1·62, 95% CI: 1·17, 2·24, P<0.05 | ||||
| 7. | Heywood & Lyon. (2016) [33] | The short-form Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS-21) | A higher score represents a greater indication of depression. | Psychological | Experiencing greater internalized stigma | β = 1.14, P<0.001 |
| Social | Unemployment | β = 5.41, P = 0.05 | ||||
| Born overseas | β = − 2.62, P = 0.05 | |||||
| 8. | Murphy et al. (2018) [34] | 14-item Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) | A score of 0 to 7 was defined as normal, 8 to 10 as borderline depression, and a score of 11 to 21 as suspected depression. | Psychological | HIV Health Optimism | β = − 0.15, 95% CI: -0.44, -0.06, P<0.05 |
| Enacted stigma | β = 0.15, 95% CI: 0.02, 0.28, P<0.05 | |||||
| Internalized stigma | β = 0.36, 95% CI: 0.26, 0.09, P<0.001 | |||||
Abbreviations: AOR: Adjusted odds ratio; OR: odds ratio, CI: confidence interval.