Table 5.
Association between cheese intake and mortality (n = 34,161)α
| Cheese intake frequency | P trendβ | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Almost never | 1–2 times/mo | 1–2 times/wk | 3 times/wk/ Almost daily |
||
| Men | |||||
| Person-years | 1,67,125 | 1,25,487 | 45,575 | 15,276 | |
| All-cause mortality | |||||
| No. of death | 2276 | 1345 | 523 | 210 | |
| Model 1γ | 1.00 (ref.) | 0.87 (0.81–0.93) | 0.90 (0.82–1.00) | 0.98 (0.85–1.13) | 0.018 |
| Model 2δ | 1.00 (ref.) | 0.89 (0.83–0.95) | 0.94 (0.85–1.03) | 1.03 (0.89–1.18) | 0.158 |
| Model 3ε | 1.00 (ref.) | 0.89 (0.83–0.96) | 0.96 (0.87–1.05) | 1.05 (0.91–1.22) | 0.356 |
| Cancer mortality | |||||
| No. of death | 838 | 566 | 231 | 78 | |
| Model 1γ | 1.00 (ref.) | 0.99 (0.89–1.11) | 1.09 (0.94–1.26) | 0.99 (0.79–1.25) | 0.548 |
| Model 2δ | 1.00 (ref.) | 1.00 (0.90–1.12) | 1.11 (0.96–1.29) | 1.03 (0.81–1.30) | 0.322 |
| Model 3ε | 1.00 (ref.) | 1.01 (0.91–1.13) | 1.15 (0.99–1.33) | 1.08 (0.85–1.36) | 0.140 |
| CVD mortality | |||||
| No. of death | 573 | 309 | 115 | 51 | |
| Model 1γ | 1.00 (ref.) | 0.80 (0.70–0.92) | 0.79 (0.65–0.97) | 0.95 (0.71–1.26) | 0.017 |
| Model 2δ | 1.00 (ref.) | 0.82 (0.72–0.95) | 0.86 (0.70–1.05) | 1.00 (0.75–1.34) | 0.114 |
| Model 3ε | 1.00 (ref.) | 0.83 (0.72–0.95) | 0.86 (0.70–1.06) | 1.01 (0.75–1.34) | 0.136 |
| Women | |||||
| Person-years | 1,89,818 | 1,24,799 | 60,612 | 21,323 | |
| All-cause mortality | |||||
| No. of death | 1385 | 685 | 324 | 128 | |
| Model 1γ | 1.00 (ref.) | 0.86 (0.79–0.94) | 0.84 (0.75–0.95) | 0.85 (0.71–1.02) | 0.001 |
| Model 2δ | 1.00 (ref.) | 0.89 (0.81–0.98) | 0.88 (0.78–0.99) | 0.89 (0.74–1.07) | 0.013 |
| Model 3ε | 1.00 (ref.) | 0.89 (0.81–0.98) | 0.88 (0.78–1.00) | 0.89 (0.74–1.07) | 0.016 |
| Cancer mortality | |||||
| No. of death | 437 | 236 | 122 | 44 | |
| Model 1γ | 1.00 (ref.) | 0.92 (0.79–1.08) | 0.98 (0.80–1.20) | 0.92 (0.67–1.25) | 0.536 |
| Model 2δ | 1.00 (ref.) | 0.95 (0.81–1.11) | 1.02 (0.83–1.25) | 0.95 (0.70–1.30) | 0.819 |
| Model 3ε | 1.00 (ref.) | 0.96 (0.81–1.12) | 1.03 (0.84–1.27) | 0.95 (0.70–1.31) | 0.923 |
| CVD mortality | |||||
| No. of death | 354 | 172 | 83 | 36 | |
| Model 1γ | 1.00 (ref.) | 0.88 (0.73–1.05) | 0.88 (0.69–1.12) | 0.94 (0.67–1.33) | 0.254 |
| Model 2δ | 1.00 (ref.) | 0.90 (0.75–1.09) | 0.93 (0.73–1.18) | 0.99 (0.70–1.40) | 0.546 |
| Model 3ε | 1.00 (ref.) | 0.91 (0.76–1.10) | 0.95 (0.74–1.21) | 0.99 (0.70–1.41) | 0.634 |
αHazard ratios (HRs) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs) were calculated by Cox proportional hazards models
βP trend was calculated by treating exposure as a continuous variable
γModel 1 was adjusted for age (continuous)
δModel 2 was adjusted for Model 1 plus education level (junior high school or lower, high school, college or higher, or missing), BMI (< 18.5 kg/m2, 18.5–24.9 kg/m2, ≥ 25.0 kg/m2, or missing), smoking status (never, former, < 20 cigarettes/day, ≥ 20 cigarettes/day, or missing), alcohol drinking status (current, never, former, or missing), history of hypertension (yes, or no), and history of diabetes (yes, or no)
εModel 3 was adjusted for Model 2 plus energy intake (sex-specific tertiles or missing), fish intake (sex-specific tertiles or missing),and vegetable and fruit intake (sex-specific tertiles or missing)