Table 3.

Generalized Estimating Equation Models Examining Risk and Protective Factors as Predictors of Later Gun Violence

	Gun Violence (T+1)
	Model 1: Risk Only			Model 2: Protective Only			Model 3: Full Model
Predictors (T)	OR	95% C.I.	p	OR	95% C.I.	p	OR	95% C.I.	p
Gun violence	3.08	[1.94, 4.88]	<.001	9.27	[6.53, 13.16]	<.001	2.75	[1.74, 4.35]	<.001
Gun carrying only	2.08	[1.46, 2.95]	<.001	4.26	[3.19, 5.67]	<.001	1.99	[1.39, 2.83]	<.001
Risk Factors
Non-gun serious violence	1.24	[0.90, 1.70]	0.191				1.25	[0.91, 1.72]	0.166
Regular heavy drinking	1.46	[1.06, 1.99]	0.019				1.43	[1.05, 1.95]	0.025
Drug dealing	1.50	[1.13, 1.98]	0.005				1.47	[1.11, 1.94]	0.006
Poor impulse control	0.92	[0.80, 1.06]	0.246				0.94	[0.82, 1.08]	0.380
Personal rewards of crime	1.24	[1.10, 1.40]	<.001				1.20	[1.06, 1.35]	0.004
Gang membership	1.55	[1.12, 2.14]	0.009				1.50	[1.08, 2.08]	0.016
Peer gun carrying	1.27	[1.10, 1.47]	0.001				1.30	[1.12, 1.50]	<.001
Peer non-gun delinquency	0.91	[0.78, 1.05]	0.192				0.88	[0.76, 1.03]	0.107
Exposure to violence	1.14	[1.03, 1.26]	0.009				1.18	[1.06, 1.30]	0.002
Neighborhood disorder	1.07	[0.94, 1.22]	0.318				1.08	[0.95, 1.24]	0.253
Protective Factors
Concern for others				0.84	[0.75, 0.94]	0.003	0.87	[0.77, 0.98]	0.025
Expectations for work/family				1.00	[0.88, 1.14]	0.988	1.05	[0.92, 1.21]	0.480
Aspirations for work/family				0.84	[0.76, 0.92]	<.001	0.82	[0.74, 0.91]	<.001
Religious beliefs				0.86	[0.76, 0.98]	0.021	0.87	[0.76, 0.99]	0.029
Strong adult social supports
One adult support				1.02	[0.80, 1.30]	0.887	1.00	[0.78, 1.28]	0.987
Two adult supports				0.46	[0.23, 0.91]	0.026	0.44	[0.21, 0.89]	0.022

Note. OR = odds ratio; C.I. = confidence interval. Sample size is 1,147 participants with 10,323 observations. Covariates indexing street months (T+1), age (T+1), placement in a secure facility (T+1), and race were included in all models.