Table 1.

Antiviral functions of the gut microbiota.

Bacterial species	Intervention	Mechanisms	References
Commensal microbiota	Antibiotic treatment	Regulates the generation of virus-specific CD4 and CD8 T cells Provides signals leading to the expression of mRNA for pro–IL-1β and pro–IL-18	(44)
Commensal microbiota	Antibiotic treatment	Enhances primary alveolar macrophage function	(45)
Commensal microbiota	Streptococcus pneumoniae treatment	Modifies neutrophil phenotype through down-regulating neutrophil expression of an efferocytosis-inhibitory molecule reduces susceptibility to severe pneumonia	(46)
Bacteroides species increased	SCFA treatment	Enhancement of CD8+T cell metabolism Increased generation of macrophages with reduced ability to produce CXCL1 in airways Reduced neutrophil recruitment, resulting in the attenuation of lung immunopathology	(47)
Clostridium orbiscindens	Antibiotic treatment	Enhanced type I IFN signaling in macrophages	(48)
Commensal microbiota	Microbiota transfer	Production of virus-specific CD8+T cell responses via dendritic cells	(49)
Lachnospiraceae spp.	SCFA treatment	GPR43-mediated and IFNAR dependent IFN-β responses in lung epithelial cells	(50)
Lactobacillus plantarum L-137	SCFA treatment	Proinflammatory activity Th1 immune response	(51)