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. 2022 Mar 3;13:844401. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.844401

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Copyright © 2022 Chen, Zhang, Dong, Xu and Zhou

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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Cytotoxicity and pro-inflammatory effects of microbiota. Bacteria can act directly on host cells and produce toxic effects. For example, Helicobacter pylori binds to gastric epithelial cells through the adhesin HopQ and CEACAM, and the virulence factor CagA is directly injected into epithelial cells through T4SS. Colibactin secreted by Pathogenic Escherichia coli in the host cellinduces cross-links between DNA strands and double-strand DNA breaks. Host cells secrete chemokines and recruit immune cells, such as neutrophils, macrophage and T cells. These immune cells are activated by LPS to produce ROS/RNS, inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, increase damage to host cells. Damaged host cells may be transformed, self-limiting, apoptosis or necrosis, while necrotic pancreatic cells release endogenous digestive enzymes, further damaging other pancreatic cells.