Table 1.

Alterations of mycobiome in liver diseases.

Liver disease	Design and participant details	Methodology	Fungal diversity	Mycobiota composition			Reference
				Family	genus	species
Alcohol-associated Liver Disease	Healthy individuals (controls, n=8) Alcohol use disorder patients without progressive liver disease (n=10) Alcohol-associated hepatitis patients (n=6) Alcohol-associated liver cirrhosis patients (n= 4)	ITS1	Simpson index ↓ Fungal species richness ↓		Candida ↑ Epicoccum ↓ Galactomyces ↓ Debaryomyces ↓		[17]
Alcohol-associated Liver Disease	Alcohol-associated hepatitis (n=59) Alcohol use disorder (n=15) Healthy controls (n=11)	ITS1	Shannon ↓ Chao ↓ Simpson ↑		Candida ↑ Penicillium ↓		[18]
Alcohol-associated Liver Disease	Non-alcoholic controls (n=11) Alcohol use disorder (n=42) Alcohol-associated hepatitis (n=91)	Culture and single colony qPCR	Not reported			Candida albicans ↑	[19]
Alcohol-associated Disease	Healthy control subjects (n=18) Alcohol use disorder (n=66)	ITS2	Not reported	Cystostereaceae ↑ Debaryomycetaceae ↑ Didymellaceae ↑ Microascaceae ↑ Pichiae ↑	Candida ↑ Debaryomyces ↑ Pichia ↑ Kluyveromyces ↑ Issatchenkia ↑ Scopulariopsis ↑ Aspergillus ↓	Candida albicans ↑ Candida zeylanoides ↑ Issatchenkia orientalis ↑ Scopulariopsis cordiae ↑ Kazachstania humilis ↓	[20]
Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease	NAFLD (n=78; 24 NAFL, 54 NASH; 40 F0-F1, 38 F2-F4) Controls (n=16)	ITS2	No significant difference			Candida. albicans ↑ Mucor sp. ↑ Cyberlindnera jadinii ↑ Penicillium sp.↑ unknown Pleosporales ↑ Babjeviella inositovora ↑ Candida argentea ↑ log ratio: Babjeviella inositovora/S. cerevisiae ↑ log ratio: Mucor sp./S. cerevisiae ↑ log ratio: unknown Hanseniaspora/S. cerevisiae ↑	[23]
Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease	NAFLD patients(n=79) healthy subjects (n=34)	ITS				Talaromyces ↑ Paraphaeosphaeria ↑ Lycoperdon ↑ Curvularia ↑ Phialemoniopsis ↑ Paraboeremia ↑ Sarcinomyces ↑ Cladophialophora ↑ Sordaria ↑ Leptosphaeria ↓ Pseudopithomyces ↓ Fusicolla ↓	[24]
Primary sclerosing cholangitis	PSC with IBD (n=27) PSC without IBD (n=22) IBD without PSC (n=33) Healthy subjects (n=30).	ITS2	No significant difference		Exophiala ↑	Saccharomyces. cerevisiae ↓	[26]
Primary sclerosing cholangitis	Healthy subjects (n=66) PSC patients (n=65, n=32 (PSC-IBD) Ulcerative colitis patients (n=38)	PCR ITS2	No significant difference		Candida ↑ Humicola ↑	Hamataliwa.grisea ↑	[27]
Cirrhosis	Cross-sectional analysis: Cirrhosis (n=143, 77 outpatients, 66 inpatients) Healthy controls (n=26) Three Longitudinal studies: 1) cirrhotics followed over 6 months 2) outpatient cirrhotics with antibiotics for 5 days 3) cirrhotics and controls administered omeprazole over 14 days	ITS1	Shannon diversity ↓ Shannon diversity negatively correlated with MELD score Outpatient antibiotic use Shannon diversity ↓ PPI therapy do not change Shannon diversity		Candida ↑		[28]
Cirrhosis	Liver cirrhosis patients (n=135, blood n = 135, ascites n = 92, duodenal fluid n = 54) Healthy control (n=26, blood n = 26, duodenal fluid n = 26)	PCR- and culture-based techniques	Not reported		Candida ↑		[29]
Hepatitis B virus	Hepatitis B cirrhosis (n=38) Chronic hepatitis B (n=35) HBV carriers (n=33) Healthy volunteers (n=55).	Culture, PCR	Patients with hepatitis B cirrhosis > patients with chronic hepatitis B >HBV carriers ≈ healthy volunteers.		Candida ↑ Saccharomyces ↑ Aspergillus ↑ Galactomyces ↑ Chaetomium ↑	Aspergillus versicolor ↑ Aspergillus penicillioides ↑ Candida. solani ↑ Candida. albicans ↑ Candida. tropicalis ↑ Saccharomyces sp. ↑ Saccharomyces. cerevisiae ↑ Chaetomium sp. ↑ Wallemia muriae ↑ Asterotremella albida ↑ Rhizopus microsporus var. ↑	[31]
Cirrhosis Hepatitis B virus	Hepatitis B patients (n=52) Hepatitis B patients with cirrhosis (n=52) Healthy controls (n=40)	Culture	Not reported		Saccharomyces ↑		[32]
Hepatitis B virus	HBV-liver cirrhosis patients (n=80) Chronic hepatitis B patients (n=68) HBV carriers (n=66) Healthy volunteers (n=84)	QPCR				C.parapsilosis ↑ C. glabrata ↑ C. tropicalis S. cerevisiae ↑	[33]
Hepatitis C Virus	Patients with chronic HCV infection (n=26) HCV cirrhosis (n=26) Healthy control (n=55)	Culture, PCR	Not reported		Candida ↑		[34]