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. 2022 Mar 17;12:4572. doi: 10.1038/s41598-022-08404-9

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© The Author(s) 2022

Open AccessThis article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Message coordination in astroturfing campaigns (red) is more common and involves more accounts than in a comparison group of regular Twitter users (black). (a) Comparison of the number of co-(re)tweets among accounts with varying temporal threshold (i.e. how far apart two tweets are allowed to be in order to still be considered a co-(re)tweet. (b) Co-(re)tweet network of the U.S. campaign. Two accounts are connected if they (re)tweeted the same content within one minute. (c) Same as b) but for an equally sized set of comparison users located in the U.S. (d) Percentage of accounts (astroturfing or comparison group) appearing in the networks shown in (b) and (c). Missing accounts to 100% are isolated in the network, meaning that they do not co-(re)tweet with any other account in the respective sample.