Table 1.
Expression levels and effects of CXCL13/CXCR5 axis in autoimmune diseases.
| Disease | Expression levels | Effects | Reference |
|---|---|---|---|
| RA | Increased CXCL13 in serum, plasma, synovial tissues, and synovial fluids. | Promotes ectopic lymphoid neogenesis. Modulates B10+ cells attraction and activation. Promotes EPC homing and angiogenesis. |
(63, 72–78) |
| MS | Elevated CXCL13 in serum, plasma, CSF, and active MS lesions. | Promotes ectopic lymphoid neogenesis. | (77, 79–82) |
| SLE | Increased CXCL13 levels in serum. Increased CXCL13 and CXCR5 expressions in renal cortex of LN patients. |
Regulates B-cell and double-negative T cells trafficking. Promotes mesangial cells proliferation and TGF-β1 production. Induces proinflammatory cytokines and chemokines secretion of podocytes. |
(83–88) |
| pSS | Increased CXCL13 in serum, saliva, salivary glands tissues, and salivary gland secretome. Elevated CXCR5+ cells accumulate within focal infiltrates of minor salivary glands. |
Promotes CXCR5+ cells recruitment and ectopic lymphoid neogenesis. | (89–93) |
| MG | Increased CXCL13 in serum and thymus. | Promotes ectopic GCs formation in thymus. | (71, 94–98) |
| T1DM | Increased CXCL13 and CXCR5 expression in NOD mice. | Promotes ectopic lymphoid neogenesis. | (99, 100) |
| IBD | Increased CXCL13 in serum. Increased CXCL13 and CXCR5 expression within lymphoid aggregates in lesions. |
Promotes CD4+ CXCR5+ T cells migration. | (101–103) |
| PBC | Increased CXCL13 expression in liver tissue. Increased frequencies of CXCR5+ CD4+ T cells in portal tracts. |
Promotes CXCR5+ cells recruitment. | (104) |
| GD | Increased CXCL13 and CXCR5 expression in thyroid tissue. | Promotes CXCR5+ cells recruitment and ectopic lymphoid neogenesis. | (105–107) |
| BP | Increased CXCL13 in serum. Increased CXCL13+ cells and CXCR5+ cells in lesional skin. |
Not fully clarified. | (108) |
| Psoriasis | Increased CXCL13 in serum, plasma, and cutaneous lesions. | Not fully clarified. | (109, 110) |
| SSc | Increased CXCL13 in serum and lesional skin. | Promotes B-cell responses. | (111) |
| AIP | Increased CXCL13 expression in pancreatic tissues | Not fully clarified. | (112) |
AIP, autoimmune pancreatitis; BP, bullous pemphigoid; CSF, cerebrospinal fluid; dsDNA, double-stranded DNA; DSS, dextran sulfate sodium; EAE, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis; EPC, endothelial progenitor cell; GCs, germinal centers; GD, Graves’ disease; IBD, inflammatory bowel disease; LN, lupus nephritis; MG, myasthenia gravis; MS, multiple sclerosis; NOD, non-obese diabetic; PBC, primary biliary cholangitis; pSS, primary Sjögren’s syndrome; RA, rheumatoid arthritis; SLE, systemic lupus erythematosus; SSc, systemic sclerosis; T1DM, type 1 diabetes; TGF-β1, transforming growth factor β1; Th1, T helper 1; Th17, T helper 17; Treg, regulatory T cell.