TABLE 3.
Associations of potential mediators with SES measures and risk of obesity
| Potential mediator | Total sample (n = 1,211) |
RR of obesity at 6 years (95% Cl) | Maternal educationb |
Family incomeb |
||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| n (%)/mean ± SDa | Low (n = 596) |
High (n = 551) |
p value | Low (n = 427) |
High (n = 784) |
p value | ||
| n (%)/mean + SD | n (%)/mean + SD | n (%)/mean + SD | n (%)/mean + SD | |||||
| Maternal height (m) | 1.65 ± 0.07 | 2.60 (0.40–16.90) | 1.65 ± 0.07 | 1.66 ± 0.07 | 0.701 | 1.65 ± 0.07 | 1.65 ± 0.07 | 0.975 |
| Maternal preconception weight (kg) | 73.45 ± 20.46 | 1.02 (1.01–1.02) | 75.40 ± 21.75 | 71.58 ± 18.66 | 0.002 | 76.10 ± 22.44 | 72.02 ± 19.18 | 0.001 |
| Maternal preconception BMI (kg/m2) | 26.76 ± 7.03 | 1.04(1.03–1.06) | 27.49 ± 7.54 | 26.05 ±6.29 | <0.001 | 27.71 ± 7.86 | 26.25 ± 6.49 | <0.001 |
| Underweight/normal weight (<25.0) | 588 (49.2) | Reference | 263 (44.8) | 294 (53.9) | 0.002 | 180 (43.0) | 408 (52.5) | 0.004 |
| Overweight (25.0–29.9) | 312 (26.1) | 2.18 (1.57–3.03) | 156(26.6) | 139(25.5) | 116 (27.7) | 196(25.2) | ||
| Obesity (>30.0) | 296 (24.7) | 2.44 (1.77–3.36) | 168 (28.6) | 112 (20.6) | 123 (29.4) | 173 (22.3) | ||
| Paternal preconception weight status | ||||||||
| Normal weight | 952 (86.0) | Reference | 463 (85.4) | 437(86.0) | 0.782 | 324 (84.8) | 628 (86.6) | 0.411 |
| Overweight/obesity | 155 (14.0) | 1.73 (1.26–2.38) | 79 (14.6) | 71 (14.0) | 58 (15.2) | 97 (13.4) | ||
| GWG (kg) | 13.70 ± 6.24 | 0.99 (0.97–1.02) | 13.68 ± 6.89 | 13.63 ± 5.41 | 0.88 | 13.58 ± 7.02 | 13.76 ± 5.78 | 0.638 |
| Inadequate | 240 (20.8) | Reference | 127 (22.4) | 102 (19.3) | 0.112 | 92 (22.8) | 148 (19.8) | 0.084 |
| Adequate | 370 (32.1) | 0.70 (0.47–1.04) | 168 (29.7) | 187 (35.3) | 113 (28.0) | 257(34.3) | ||
| Excessive | 542 (47.1) | 1.07 (0.77–1.50) | 271 (47.9) | 240 (45.4) | 198 (49.1) | 344 (45.9) | ||
| Prenatal Healthy Eating Index | 65.99 ±8.61 | 0.97 (0.94–1.00) | 64.84 ± 9.17 | 67.36 ± 7.91 | 0.003 | 63.97 ± 9.25 | 66.78 ± 8.23 | 0.003 |
| Gestational age at first prenatal visit (wk) | ||||||||
| ≤4 | 137 (11.4) | Reference | 74 (12.5) | 51 (9.3) | 0.007 | 50(11.7) | 87(11.2) | <0.001 |
| 5–8 | 635 (52.7) | 0.82 (0.56–1.19) | 303 (51.1) | 301 (54.9) | 195 (45.8) | 440 (56.6) | ||
| 9–12 | 320 (26.6) | 0.70 (0.45–1.08) | 148 (25.0) | 159 (29.0) | 117 (27.5) | 203 (26.1) | ||
| ≥13 | 112 (9.3) | 0.91(0.54–1.53) | 68 (11.5) | 37(6.8) | 64 (15.0) | 48 (6.2) | ||
| Maternal smoking during pregnancy | ||||||||
| No | 1,118 (92.5) | Reference | 526 (88.4) | 538 (98.0) | <0.001 | 370 (86.7) | 748 (95.8) | <0.001 |
| Yes | 90 (7.5) | 1.74 (1.21–2.52) | 69 (11.6) | 11 (2.0) | 57(13.3) | 33 (4.2) | ||
| Maternal number of cigarettes smoked per day during pregnancy | 0.68 ± 2.92 | 1.05 (1.02–1.08) | 1.09 ±3.58 | 0.15 ± 1.50 | <0.001 | 1.32 ±4.03 | 0.34 ± 2.00 | <0.001 |
| Gestational diabetes | ||||||||
| No | 1,117 (92.2) | Reference | 551 (92.4) | 508 (92.2) | 0.872 | 394 (92.3) | 723 (92.2) | 0.974 |
| Yes | 94 (7.8) | 1.51 (1.02–2.23) | 45 (7.6) | 43 (7.8) | 33 (7.7) | 61 (7.8) | ||
| Method of delivery | ||||||||
| Vaginal | 849 (70.2) | Reference | 419 (70.4) | 390(70.8) | 0.894 | 310(72.6) | 539 (68.8) | 0.172 |
| Cesarean delivery | 361 (29.8) | 1.32 (1.01–1.72) | 176 (29.6) | 161 (29.2) | 117 (27.4) | 244 (31.2) | ||
| Large-for-gestational-age | ||||||||
| No | 1,075 (88.8) | Reference | 535 (89.8) | 478 (86.8) | 0.112 | 382 (89.5) | 693 (88.4) | 0.574 |
| Yes | 136(11.2) | 1.49 (1.06–2.10) | 61 (10.2) | 73 (13.2) | 45 (10.5) | 91(11.6) | ||
| Gestational age at birth (wk) | 39.32 ± 1.26 | 1.02 (0.91–1.14) | 39.28 ± 1.29 | 39.34 ± 1.22 | 0.41 | 39.34 ± 1.31 | 39.31 ± 1.24 | 0.687 |
| Birth weight (kg) | 3.46 ± 0.50 | 1.33 (1.05–1.69) | 3.44 ± 0.48 | 3.51 ± 0.51 | 0.018 | 3.44 ± 0.53 | 3.47 ± 0.48 | 0.26 |
| Birth length (cm) | 50.81 ±2.68 | 1.02 (0.96–1.07) | 50.63 ±2.63 | 51.03 ± 2.70 | 0.001 | 50.58 ±2.67 | 50.93 ±2.68 | 0.029 |
| Edinburgh postnatal depression score at 2 months | 6.50 ± 4.47 | 1.03 (1.00–1.06) | 6.75 ± 4.68 | 6.12 ±4.21 | 0.026 | 6.84 ±4.79 | 6.32 ± 4.28 | 0.074 |
| Postnatal Healthy Eating Index at 3 months | 64.42 ± 9.67 | 0.98 (0.96–1.00) | 62.21 ± 9.73 | 66.64 ± 9.06 | <0.001 | 62.78 ± 10.19 | 65.09 ± 9.38 | 0.007 |
| Breastfeeding duration (wk) | 30.68 ± 30.47 | 1.00(0.99–1.00) | 25.03 ± 28.32 | 37.77 ± 30.86 | <0.001 | 27.41 ± 29.86 | 32.43 ±30.67 | 0.007 |
| Exclusive breastfeeding duration (wk) | 4.84 ± 8.32 | 0.96 (0.97–1.01) | 3.55 ± 6.86 | 6.63 ± 9.68 | <0.001 | 4.31 ±8.09 | 5.13 ±8.44 | 0.141 |
| Timing of formula initiation (wk) | 10.24 ± 10.69 | 0.97(0.95–0.99) | 8.34 ±8.49 | 13.09 ± 12.91 | <0.001 | 8.87 ±9.51 | 11.01 ± 11.23 | 0.003 |
| Timing of introduction of solid foods (wk) | 26.66 ±8.15 | 0.97(0.95–0.99) | 25.61 ± 9.06 | 27.78 ± 6.58 | <0.001 | 25.47 ±8.55 | 27.29 ± 7.86 | <0.001 |
| Infant dietary pattern adherence score | ||||||||
| Infant guideline solids at 1 year | 0.06 ± 1.00 | 0.79 (0.64–0.99) | -0.08 ± 0.99 | 0.18 ± 0.96 | <0.001 | -0.11 ± 1.02 | 0.14 ± 0.98 | 0.001 |
| High sugar/fat/protein at 1 year | -0.09 ± 0.93 | 1.23 (1.08–1.40) | 0.09 ± 0.95 | -0.26 ± 0.78 | <0.001 | 0.19 ± 1.19 | -0.21 ± 0.74 | <0.001 |
| High dairy at 1 year | -0.05 ± 1.01 | 1.01 (0.85–1.20) | 0.10 ± 1.00 | -0.17 ± 1.01 | <0.001 | -0.03 ± 0.98 | -0.05 ± 1.03 | 0.796 |
| Formula/baby cereal at 1 year | 0.03 ± 1.01 | 1.08 (0.94–1.25) | 0.03 ± 1.05 | -0.02 ± 0.94 | 0.486 | 0.05 ± 1.12 | 0.02 ± 0.96 | 0.679 |
| Child sleep duration at 1 year (h) | ||||||||
| ≥4 | 49 (5.4) | Reference | 21(5.2) | 27 (5.8) | <0.001 | 26 (9.0) | 23 (3.7) | <0.001 |
| 5–6 | 129 (14.2) | 0.70 (0.37–1.30) | 66 (16.4) | 56(12.0) | 42 (14.5) | 87 (14.1) | ||
| 7–8 | 159 (17.5) | 0.85 (0.48–1.51) | 85(21.1) | 59 (12.6) | 73 (25.3) | 86(13.9) | ||
| ≥9 | 571 (62.9) | 0.48 (0.28–0.82) | 231 (57.3) | 326 (69.7) | 148 (51.2) | 423 (68.3) | ||
| Nonmaternal infant care at 1 year | ||||||||
| No | 435 (47.3) | Reference | 175 (42.9) | 238 (50.2) | 0.03 | 177 (60.6) | 307 (49.0) | 0.001 |
| Yes | 484(52.7) | 1.11 (0.81–1.52) | 233 (57.1) | 236 (49.8) | 115 (39.4) | 320(51.0) | ||
| Infant weight gain (kg) | ||||||||
| From birth to 3 months | 2.07 ± 0.77 | 1.12 (0.90–1.40) | 2.10 ± 0.78 | 2.05 ± 0.76 | 0.291 | 2.03 ± 0.81 | 2.09 ± 0.75 | 0.232 |
| From birth to 7 months | 4.42 ± 1.08 | 1.37(1.19–1.57) | 4.54 ± 1.17 | 4.29 ± 0.95 | <0.001 | 4.40 ± 1.14 | 4.43 ± 1.04 | 0.625 |
| From birth to 12 months | 6.16 ± 1.24 | 1.29 (1.13–1.48) | 6.19 ± 1.34 | 6.07 ± 1.11 | 0.147 | 6.09 ± 1.37 | 6.19 ± 1.18 | 0.291 |
| Child sleep duration at 6 years (h) | 9.71 ± 1.06 | 0.68 (0.62–0.75) | 9.53 ± 1.11 | 9.93 ± 0.94 | <0.001 | 9.49 ± 1.13 | 9.83 ± 0.99 | <0.001 |
| Child dietary pattern adherence score at 6 years | ||||||||
| Fast foods | 0.02 ± 1.07 | 1.08 (1.00–1.16) | 0.18 ± 1.31 | -0.20 ± 0.63 | <0.001 | 0.19 ± 1.49 | -0.08 ± 0.72 | <0.001 |
| Guideline foods | 0.01 ± 1.02 | 0.90 (0.78–1.02) | -0.07 ± 1.08 | 0.14 ± 0.94 | <0.001 | -0.01 ± 1.11 | 0.03 ± 0.97 | 0.525 |
| Breakfast-type foods | 0.00 ± 1.02 | 0.94 (0.79–1.12) | -0.06 ± 1.02 | 0.08 ± 0.96 | 0.014 | -0.05 ± 1.01 | 0.03 ± 1.03 | 0.236 |
| Staple foods | 0.01 ± 1.05 | 1.01 (0.87–1.16) | -0.02 ± 1.13 | 0.03 ± 0.99 | 0.42 | 0.06 ± 1.20 | -0.02 ± 0.96 | 0.193 |
| Dairy foods | 0.01 ± 1.03 | 0.94 (0.82–1.08) | 0.03 ± 1.09 | 0.00 ± 0.97 | 0.625 | 0.00 ± 1.04 | 0.02 ± 1.03 | 0.841 |
| Package foods | -0.01 ± 1.02 | 1.04 (0.92–1.19) | -0.01 ± 1.05 | -0.03 ± 0.90 | 0.803 | 0.13 ± 1.14 | -0.08 ± 0.93 | <0.001 |
| Score of child food and eating environment at 6 years | 28.03 ± 2.41 | 0.98 (0.51–1.90) | 27.92 ± 2.53 | 28.19 ±2.08 | 0.137 | 28.09 ±2.37 | 27.91 ± 2.48 | 0.378 |
| Score of child home learning environment at 6 years | 2.21 ± 0.86 | 0.77 (0.67–0.88) | 2.01 ± 0.91 | 2.43 ± 0.75 | <0.001 | 1.89 ± 0.93 | 2.38 ± 0.78 | <0.001 |
| Number of days per week with ≥60 minutes of child MVPAat 6 years | 5.49 ± 1.60 | 0.95 (0.88–1.02) | 5.54 ± 1.59 | 5.48 ± 1.55 | 0.51 | 5.46 ± 1.64 | 5.50 ± 1.58 | 0.706 |
| Child TV viewing per day on weekdays at 6 years (h) | 1.50 ± 1.15 | 1.18 (1.08–1.28) | 1.68 ± 1.25 | 1.28 ± 0.96 | <0.001 | 1.61 ± 1.26 | 1.44 ± 1.09 | 0.012 |
| Child TV viewing per day on weekends at 6 years (h) | 2.70 ± 1.64 | 1.08 (1.00–1.15) | 2.95 ± 1.70 | 2.41 ± 1.43 | <0.001 | 2.81 ± 1.72 | 2.64 ± 1.60 | 0.091 |
a
For some variables, the sum of categories was not equal to the total because of missing data.
b
Low parental education was defined as 3 years of college or lower, and high education was defined as college graduate or higher; low family income was defined as ≤185% of the poverty line, and high family income was defined as >185% of the poverty line.
Abbreviations: GWG, gestational weight gain; MVPA, moderate or vigorous physical activity; RR, relative risk.