Table 2.

Applications of sensor-based phenotyping of PPI

Sign/symptom	Plant	Pathogen	Sensor / Vector	Scale	Reference
Pathogen signs	Arabidopsis thaliana, Hordeum vulgare	Fusarium graminearum expressing GFP	Zeiss Stemi-C dissecting microscope with a 470 nm excitation filter and 535 nm emission filter	Whole plants (At), detached spikes (Hv)	[26]
	Beta vulgaris L.	Cercospora beticola	Hyperspectral microscope (PFD V10E), motorized stage	Individual lesions	[22]
	Cereals	Blumeria graminis	Monochrome CCD sensor, 4 channels captured	‘Macrobot’, robotic arm	[21]
	Nicotiana benthamiana	Phytophthora infestans expressing RFP	Monochrome camera with filter wheel and excitation lights (PathoScreen imaging system, Phenovation, the Netherlands)	Detached leaves	[28]
	Nicotiana tabacum	Tobacco mosaic virus expressing GFP	RGB camera under UV illumination (Blak-Ray Model B 100AP)	Detached leaves	[27]
	Phaseolus vulgaris	Pseudomonas syringae pv. phaseolicola expressing lux-eYFP operon	nightOWL LB 983 in vivo imaging system (Berthold Technologies, Germany), confocal laser scanning microscope Zeiss LSM 880	Detached leaves	[34]
	Triticum aestivum L.	Fusarium graminearum	X-ray CT, Biomedical Imaging and Therapy beamline (BMIT‐BM, 05B1‐1)	Spikelet	[114]
	Vitis spp.	Erysiphe necator	RGB (Nikon D850), automated motorized stage	Individual leaf discs, automated imaging	[20]
Primary metabolism	Arabidopsis thaliana	Pseudomonas syrinae	CF Imager (Technologica Ltd., UK), NPQ, fPSII, Fv/Fm	Individual plants	[149]
	Cucumis melo	Podosphaera xanthii	Open FluorCam 700 MF (Photon System Instruments), NPQ, fPSII	Individual leaves	[54]
	Hordeum vulgare	Blumeria graminis f. sp. hordei	Chlorophyll Fluorometer IMAGING-PAM M-series (Walz, Germany)	Individual leaves	[150]
	Lactuca sativa	Bremia lactucae	Open FluorCam 700 MF (Photon System Instruments), Fv/Fm	Leaf discs	[151]
	Nicotiana benthamiana	Pepper mild mottle virus	FluorCam (Photon System Instruments), NPQ, fPSII	Individual leaves	[152]
	Olea europaea	Xylella fastidiosa	Micro-hyperspectral imager (VNIR model, Headwall Photonics, USA), 400 – 885 nm, from aircraft 500 m above ground	Orchards	[48]
	Oryza sativa	Rhizoctonia solani	Non-imaging NeoSpectra micro handheld spectrometer (SiWare Systems, Canada), 1348–2551 nm	Individual leaf spots (non-imaging)	[61]
	Solanum tuberosum	Phytophthora infestans, Alternaria solani	Non-imaging field spectrometer SVC HR-1024i (350–2500 nm) (Spectra Vista Corporation, USA)	Individual leaf spots (non-imaging)	[153]
Secondary metabolism	Beta vulgaris	Cercospora beticola	SWIR spectral camera, 970–2500 nm (HySpex SWIR-320 m-e line camera, Norsk Elektro Optikk A/S, Norway)	Detached leaves	[154]
	Citrus sinensis, Citrus paradisi	Candidatus Liberibacter spp.	Non-imaging handheld Raman spectrometer (Resolve spectrometer equipped with 831-nm laser source, Agilent, USA)	Detached leaves	[86, 87, 90]
	Hordeum vulgare	Blumeria graminis f.sp. hordei	UV line scanner, 250–500 nm (Headwall Photonics)	Detached leaves	[81]
	Nicotiana benthamiana	Pepper mild mottle virus	Excitation with xenon-lamp + BP 340/75, imaging with CCD camera + BP 440/20 and BP 520/20	Individual leaves	[152]
	Triticum aestivum	Puccinia triticina, Blumeria graminis f. sp. tritici	Non-imaging fiber-optic fluorescence spectrometer (IOM GmbH, Germany) combined with 337 nm pulsed N2 laser	Individual leaf spots (non-imaging)	[73]
	Vitis vinifera	Plasmopara viticola	Macroscope (AZ100 multizoom, Nikon), ex. BP 340/26 and em. LP 371	Leaf parts	[69]
Necrosis and chlorosis	Arabidopsis thaliana	Pseudomonas syringae	RGB (Nikon D5200 DSLR)	Seedlings growing in well-plates	[117]
	Arabidopsis thaliana	Sclerotinia sclerotiorum	RGB (USB camera, full HD 1080p) controlled by Raspberry Pi 3 Model B motherboards	Detached leaves	[115]
	Beta vulgaris	Cercospora beticola	RGB (camera Baumer HXG-40), multispectral camera (6 bands of 10 nm between 450 and 850 nm, AIRPHEN)	Phenomobile 1, 50 distance to canopy top (RGB), hexacaopter (multispectral)	[119]
	Triticum aestivum	Mycosphaerella graminicola	RGB (flatbed scanner)	Detached leaves collected from field trial	[23]
	Zea mays	Setosphaeria turcica	RGB	Drone, 6 m above ground	[118, 120]
Thermal energy dissipation	Cucumis sativus L.	Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cucumerinum	FLIR SC620	Individual leaves	[123]
	Ipomoea batatas L.	Sweet potato feathery mottle virus (SPFMV), Sweet potato chlorotic stunt virus (SPCSV)	Top-view thermal camera (FLIR A615), PlantScreen conveyor system, NaPPI, Helsinki	Whole plant	[132]
	Nicotiana tabacum L.	Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV)	Infrared imager (Agema THV900LW), Cartesian positioning system in imaging chamber	Leaves	[131]
	Olea europaea L.	Verticillium dahliae	Temperature sensor (Apogee IRR-P), Fixed 1 m above canopy	Single tree canopy	[129]
	Olea europaea L.	Verticillium dahliae	Broad-band thermal camera (FLIR SC655) on crewed aircraft	3000 ha, spatial resolution = 62 cm	[130]
Structural changes	Capsicum annuum	Stemphylium lycopersici	Laboratory-OCT system, 4096-pixel line scan camera (spl4096-140 km, Basler)	Single leaves	[134]
	Malus domestica	Marssonina coronaria	Backpack-based OCT system, 2048-pixel line scan camera (spL2048-140 km, Basler, Germany)	Single leaves	[133]
	Solanum tuberosum	Streptomyces scabies	Medical X-ray CT scanner (Toshiba Xvision high-resolution CT scanner)	Single plants	[135]
	Triticum aestivum	Fusarium graminearum	Synchrotron-based phase contrast X-ray imaging with the Biomedical Imaging and Therapy beamline (BMIT‐BM, 05B1‐1) at the Canadian Light Source	Single excised wheat spikes	[114]