Table 1.

Selected examples of common and/or promising maladaptive avoidance paradigms.

Selected Paradigms	What makes it maladaptive avoidance		Likely neurobehavioral process(es) involved			Examples		Brain regions implicated
	Avoidance in relative safety?	Avoidance has a negative consequence?	Heightened threat appraisal	Habitual avoidance	Trait avoidance tendency	Animal models	Human
Extinction-resistant avoidance	X		X	X		Bravo-Rivera et al 2015	Vervliet et al 2015	mPFC, ventral striatum, BLA
Extinction-resistant avoidance with overtraining	X			X		Martinez - Rivera et al 2020	Gillan et al 2014 and 2015	Frontostriatal circuitry, caudate
Extinction-resistant avoidance with response prevention	X			X		Rodriguez - Romaguera et al 2016	Vervliet & Indekeu 2015	Lateral OFC
Avoidance generalization	X	X	X		X	–	van Meurs et al. 2014; Dymond et al 2014	–
Platform-mediated avoidance test		X			X	Bravo-Rivera et al 2021	–	BLA, mPFC
Semi-naturalistic closed economy	X	X				Fanselow et al 1988; Kim et al. 2014	–	BLA
Threat discounting paradigm	X	X			X (also reward sensitivity)	–	Pittig & Scherbaum 2020; Aupperle et al 2015	Anterior insula, mPFC

Abbreviations: mPFC Medial prefrontal cortex; BLA Basolateral amygdala; OFC Orbitofrontal cortex.