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. 2022 Mar 23;51(8):1463–1482. doi: 10.1007/s10964-022-01591-8

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© The Author(s) 2022

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons license, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons license and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 1 — Structural equation models in (A) the Add Health Cohort and (B) the NELS:88 cohort. Only the structural model and the variables of interest are shown. The prefix indicates the wave at which each latent variable was measured. Standardized coefficients are presented and those in light grey did not reach significance (p > 0.05). Standardized coefficients can be interpreted as the change in the outcome (in outcome standard deviation units) for a standard deviation change in the exposure. Arts engagement Arts and cultural engagement. RACBs Reportedly antisocial or criminalized behaviors. Attitudes Attitudes towards reportedly antisocial or criminalized behavior