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. 2022 Mar 7;13:835677. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.835677

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Copyright © 2022 Cavaco, Castanho and Neves.

This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.

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The main mechanisms responsible for the appearance of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) correspond to (1) modifications of the target site of antibiotics; (2) alterations or even degradation of the antibiotic; (3) antibiotic efflux via efflux transporters; and (4) reduced antibiotic penetration into bacteria through decreased membrane permeability. Green squares (1–4), drug incapable of accumulating inside the bacteria; purple circle (1–4), drug accumulating inside bacteria; yellow cone (2), enzyme; yellow wall (4), bacterial wall.