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. 2022 Mar 22;12:4859. doi: 10.1038/s41598-022-08772-2

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© The Author(s) 2022

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Green sea urchins (S. droebachiensis) before (a, b) and after (c, d) the in vivo bacterial challenge experiment with V. echinoideorum at ± 6–8 °C. (a) Healthy sea urchin before the challenge experiment and a closer macroscopic view of intact spines, pedicellariae, tube feet, and other external appendages. (b) Artificially wounded sea urchin (spines, pedicellariae, tube feet, and other external appendages were trimmed). (c) Recovery of spines, pedicellariae, tube feet, and other external appendages of artificially wounded sea urchin (control, not exposed to bacteria) at the end of the challenge experiment. (d) Artificially wounded sea urchin (exposed to bacteria) having necrotized tissues, devoid of spines, pedicellariae, tube feet, and other external appendages.