Table 2.

Effects of GLP-1 Receptor Agonists in Models of PD: Data from Animal Experimental Models

Cellular Processes	Drug	Animal Model	Results and/or Effects	Reference
Mitochondrial dysfunction and/or Oxidative Stress	Semaglutide and liraglutide	MPTP mouse model	Inhibited the mitochondrial mitophagy signaling pathway	[215]
	Liraglutide	Acute MPTP mouse model	Normalized mitochondria dynamic Imbalance, enhanced impaired autophagy flux, and relieved oxidative stress	[216]
	Exenatide	Rotenone-Induced Rat Model	Decreased malondialdehyde	[217]
	Exenatide	MPTPx STZ rats	Reduced striatal oxidative stress markers	[218]
CNS inflammation	Semaglutide and Liraglutide	MPTP mouse model	Alleviated astrocyte and microglia activation in the striatum	[215]
	Exendin-4	MPTP mouse model	Prevented microglial activation	[219]
	Exenatide	Rotenone-Induced Rat Model	Decreased tumor necrosis factor alpha levels	[217]
	Exenatide	MPTPx STZ model rats	Reduced striatal inflammatory markers	[218]
Neurogenesis	Exendin-4	6-OHDA model rats	Stimulated subventricular zone neurogenesis	[220]
Synaptic Plasticity	Liraglutide	MPTP mouse model	Increased synaptophysin and neuroprotective growth factor glial-derived neurotrophic factor expression	[221]
α-synuclein pathology	Liraglutide	Acute MPTP mouse model	Decreases α-synuclein aggregation in substantia nigra	[216]
	Exendin-4	AAV-A53T-α-syn-injected rats	Mitigated pathologic α‑ synuclein aggregation	[192]
	Semaglutide and liraglutide	MPTP mouse model	Reduced the levels of α- synuclein	[215]
Dopaminergic neuronal loss	Liraglutide	Acute MPTP mouse model	Protected dopaminergic neurons	[216]
	Semaglutide and Liraglutide	MPTP mouse model	Attenuated dopaminergic neuronal loss	[215]
	Exendin-4	MPTP mouse model	Reduced nigrostriatal dopaminergic loss	[219]
	Exenatide	Rotenone-Induced Rat Model	Reduced the loss of dopaminergic neurons in the striatum	[217]