Table 1.

The killing mechanisms of antibiotics and resistance mechanisms of bacteria.

Antibiotics/Classes	Mode of Action	Bacteria	Mechanism of Resistance	References
Penicillin and carbapenem (beta-lactam)	Inhibiting bacterial cell wall synthesis	Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae	Producing beta-lactamase and carbapenemase and porin alteration	[26]
Macrolides	Inhibiting protein synthesis by binding to the 50S ribosomal subunit	K. pneumoniae	Producing erythromycin esterases (Eres) such as EreA and EreC	[27,34]
Ticarcillin (beta-lactam) and ciprofloxacin (quinolone)	Inhibiting bacterial cell wall and protein synthesis	Pseudomonas aeruginosa	Resistance-nodulation-division (RND) efflux pumps	[29]
Macrolides	Inhibiting protein synthesis	Streptococcus pneumoniae	Ribosomal demethylation, expelling by efflux pump, and target site mutation	[30]
Quinolones	Inhibiting nucleic acid synthesis	K. pneumoniae and Clostridium perfringens	Mutations in the genes that encode gyrase and topoisomerase IV	[31,32]
Trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole	Inhibiting folate synthesis	Burkholderia pseudomallei	Structural modification of dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR) or dihydropteroic acid synthase (DHPS)	[33]