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. 2022 Mar 9;11(3):525. doi: 10.3390/antiox11030525

Table 3.

Bioactive compounds of Gingko biloba and their effects on aging-related conditions.

Bioactive Compound Sources Molecular Structure Functions References
Ginkgolide A
(terpenoid) 		Leaves, root, and bark. graphic file with name antioxidants-11-00525-i001.jpg
  • -

    Anti-inflammatory (decreasing TNF-α, IL-1β, and NF-kB expression);

  • -

    Antioxidant (reducing ROS and augmenting free radical capture by the cells);

  • -

    Anxiolytic-like effects;

  • -

    Neuroprotection (controlling neurodegeneration and inflammation);

  • -

    Anti-atherosclerotic (prevention of OS to the endothelial cells/stimulation of NO);

  • -

    Anti-thrombotic (inhibition of platelet aggregation by MMP-9 and controlling cAMP, inhibiting intracellular Ca2+ mobilization, and decreasing TXA2 activity);

  • -

    Hepatoprotective (suppressing hepatocyte lipogenesis);

  • -

    Antitumor (inhibition of cancer cell proliferation).

 [12,42,43,44]
Ginkgolide B
(terpenoid) 		Leaves, root, and bark. graphic file with name antioxidants-11-00525-i002.jpg
  • -

    Neuroprotective effects (protecting neurons from βA apoptotic events and in ischemia/reperfusion syndrome through the regulation of NF-kB pathways);

  • -

    Anti-inflammatory (decreasing TNF-α, IL-1β, and NF-kB expressions);

  • -

    Antioxidant (reducing ROS and augmenting free radical capture);

  • -

    Protective effects of cardiomyocytes against ischemia/reperfusion syndrome;

  • -

    Inhibition of cancer cell migration and invasion;

  • -

    Induction of cancer cell apoptosis.

 [12,43,45,46,47,48,49,50,51]
Ginkgolide C
(terpenoids) 		Leaves, root, and bark. graphic file with name antioxidants-11-00525-i003.jpg
  • -

    Anti-inflammatory (decrease in TNF-α, IL-1β, and NF-kB expression);

  • -

    Antioxidant (reduces ROS and augments free radical capture);

  • -

    Suppressor of adipogenesis via AMPK signaling pathways;

  • -

    Hepatoprotective by protecting liver from lipid accumulation injuries;

  • -

    Alleviation of ischemia/reperfusion syndrome in cardiomyocytes;

  • -

    Antitumor effects (cancer cells apoptosis and inhibition of cancer cell growth).

 [12,43,52,53,54,55,56]
Bilobalide
(terpenoid) 		Leaves and bark. graphic file with name antioxidants-11-00525-i004.jpg
  • -

    Anti-inflammatory (decrease in TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6 levels);

  • -

    Neuroprotective (reduction in neuroinflammation and protection against βA deposition in AD);

  • -

    Hepatoprotective;

  • -

    Antioxidant via multiple pathways;

  • -

    Cardioprotective.

 [12,43,57,58,59]
Ginkgolic acid
(organic acid) 		Leaves. graphic file with name antioxidants-11-00525-i005.jpg
  • -

    Antibacterial and antiviral (suppression of gram-positive bacteria growth and fusion of enveloped viruses);

  • -

    Antitumor effects (inhibiting invasion and migration of cancer cells).

 [43,60,61,62]
Isorhamnetin
(flavonoid) 		Leaves. graphic file with name antioxidants-11-00525-i006.jpg
  • -

    Anti-atherosclerosis and endothelium protective;

  • -

    Neuroprotection (improvement of brain function and cognition);

  • -

    Hypotensive effects;

  • -

    Anti-ischemia and anti-fibrosis in myocardium;

  • -

    Anti-inflammatory/antioxidant,

  • -

    Antitumor effects (suppression of cancer growth and invasiveness).

 [43,63,64,65,66,67]
Quercetin
(flavonoid) 		Leaves. graphic file with name antioxidants-11-00525-i007.jpg
  • -

    Anti-inflammatory/antioxidant (decrease in lipid peroxidation and OS);

  • -

    Increase in BDNF;

  • -

    Reduces the degradation of serotonin by monoamine oxidases;

  • -

    Antitumor (modulation of VEGF, P13K/Akt, apoptosis, mTOR, MAPK/ERK1-2, and Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathways);

  • -

    Attenuation of atherosclerotic inflammation;

  • -

    Cardioprotection (protection against OS/improvement of cardiomyocytes);

  • -

    Antimicrobial.

 [43,67,68,69,70,71,72,73]
Kaempferol
(flavonoid) 		Leaves. graphic file with name antioxidants-11-00525-i008.jpg
  • -

    Antitumor (inhibiting cancer cell proliferation and stimulating apoptosis);

  • -

    Antioxidant (upregulation of GSH);

  • -

    Anti-inflammatory (inhibiting NF-kB, COX-2, and iNOS expression);

  • -

    Neuroprotection (suppression of oxidative and inflammatory damage to brain cells);

  • -

    Protection against ischemia/reperfusion syndrome and myocardial injury;

  • -

    Upregulation of BDNF;

  • -

    Reduction of serotonin degradation.

 [12,43,74,75,76,77,78]
Luteolin
(flavonoid) 		Leaves. graphic file with name antioxidants-11-00525-i009.jpg
  • -

    Anti-inflammatory (suppressing TNF-α, IL-6, COX-2, and NF-kB expressions);

  • -

    Antioxidant;

  • -

    Antitumor (inhibiting cancer cell proliferation and stimulating cell cycle arrest and apoptosis);

  • -

    Neuroprotective (limiting βA deposition, reducing neuroinflammation and brain OS);

  • -

    Cardioprotective effects (stimulation of cardiomyocyte function through MAPKs);

  • -

    Reduction of cardiomyocyte ischemic/reperfusion syndrome.

 [43,79,80,81]

AD—Alzheimer’s disease; AMPK—AMP (adenosine monophosphate)-activated protein kinase; βA—beta amyloid; BDNF—brain-derived neurotrophic factor; Ca—calcium; cAMP—cyclic adenosine monophosphate; COX-2—cyclooxygenase 2; GSH—glutathione; IL-1β—interleukin 1 beta; iNOS—nitric oxide synthase; IL-6—interleukin 6; MMP-9—matrix metallopeptidase 9; mTOR—mammalian target of rapamycin; MAPK/ERK1-2—mitogen activated protein kinase/extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1-2; NO—nitric oxide; NF-kB—nuclear factor kappa b; OS—oxidative stress; P13K/Akt—phosphatidyl inositol-3-kinase/protein-kinase b; ROS—reactive oxygen species; TXA2—thromboxane A2; VEGF—vascular endothelial growth factor.