Table 2.
Positive and negative effects related to the generation of oxidative stress on organs, systems, diseases, and physiological conditions.
| Positive Effects | Ref. | Negative Effects | Ref. | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Muscle | Improves antioxidant defense | [296,297,298,299] | Contractile dysfunction Muscle atrophy and weakness |
[300,301] |
| Adaptive response (muscle fiber type adaptation) | ||||
| Increases the number of mitochondria | ||||
| Brain | Synaptic plasticity | [302,303,304,305] | Neuropsychiatric disorder Neuron apoptosis Neurotoxicity Neurodegenerative diseases |
[306,307,308,309,310] |
| Hippocampus-independent memory formation | ||||
| Immune system | Increases immune system activity ↗NF-KB ↗IL-1β ↗TNF-α |
[311] | Rheumatoid arthritis Respiratory diseases Periodontitis Chronic kidney disease Gastro-intestinal autoimmune disease Multiple sclerosis Fibromyalgia |
[312,313,314,315] |
| Vascular system | Vasodilation Regulates blood pressure Angiogenesis Wound healing Granulation tissue formation |
[140,316,317] | Hypertension Atherosclerosis Ischemia reperfusion |
[318,319,320] |
| Cancer | Cycle arrest Apoptosis Inhibits metastasis |
[321,322,323,324,325,326] | Carcinogenesis Metastasis Therapy resistance |
[77,327,328] |
| Aging | Muscle remodeling Neuronal activity Preservation |
[12,159,197,212,329] | Sarcopenia Muscular dystrophy DNA damage Telomere shortening Neurodegenerative diseases |
[202,330,331,332,333,334,335] |