Table 4. Description of the behavioural categories, into which the selected detailed behaviours were categorized.

Behavioural categories	Description	Selected detailed behaviour within the behavioural category	Description	Source
Ambivalent	Behaviours that seem inappropriate or irrelevant, often caused by a direct stimulus. These behaviours are displayed when an elephant is unsure of what action to take. Behaviours such as trunk twisting, tail raising, touching mouth, foot swinging, and trunk biting are associated with uncertainties.	Front foot swing	Lift the front foot slightly and swing back and forth.	[41, 65, 66]
		Biting own trunk	Trunk placed in own mouth and pulled down.
		Trunk touch mouth	Elephant touches its mouth with its own trunk.
		Trunk twist and twirl	Trunk folded onto itself, resulting in a twisted trunk that unwinds in a fast action.
		Trunk in own mouth	Trunk is placed inside the mouth without pulling.
		Hanging trunk rotate left and right	Trunk hangs straight while the tip is flicked to the left and right.
Ambivalent/ Body care	A dual category was created to include behaviours that were difficult to contextualize. These behaviours include face touching/ brushing or swinging trunk to/between the legs.	Brushing face	Tip of trunk brushes over face. This is a fast action	Personal observations from zoo elephants
		Touching face	Touch any part of the face, including the ears with the tip of the trunk. Not a fast action.
		Swing trunk to leg of foot	Trunk kept straight while being swung through front feet or touches one of the front feet.
Arousal	High arousal: Behaviours induced by external stimuli, such as grouping together as a form of defence or fleeing. Loud vocalization, diarrhoea, and immediate temporal gland secretion can also occur during these situations.	Ears are spread	Both ears are spread out.	[37, 38]
	Low arousal: Behaviours occurring during unexpected or uncomfortable situations which triggers an alert state in elephants. The latter is characterized by a raised tail, head held high with ears spread out or retreat by walking warily with their ears out and tail up	Head held high	Head held high while the ears are spread out.
Assessing	Gestures displayed by elephants to aid them in gaining sensory information about their surroundings. The latter includes smelling by lifting/holding the trunk in the direction of a stimulus or a sudden pause to gain auditory input. The elephant also uses its trunk and feet for physical investigation of the environment.	Smelling down	Trunk held in a relaxed position while the tip of the trunk is curled under and points in the direction of an object of interest.	[67–69]
		Lift trunk to smell	Lifts and holds the trunk up in an S-shape.
		Sudden pause to listen	Sudden, short pause during any activity to listen.
		Explore with trunk	Using trunk to explore an object of interest.
Frustrated	When an elephant is confronted with unavoidable stress such as being blocked by a game viewing vehicle or other vehicles, or the absence of any healthy stimuli (lacking diverse vegetation types and water holes to stimulate movement of the elephants or not having enough elephants to interact with) causes it to display certain behaviours such as sweeping the ground with its trunk, head shaking, throwing item, trunk swirls, trunk on head or pushing objects with its head	Throwing item	Throw an object out of frustration, not related to feeding or play.	[53]
		Head shake	An abrupt shaking of the head.
		Trunk swing	Trunk is flicked forward.