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Pathways for nose-to-brain delivery of intranasal formulation: (a) Drug transports from the nose to the brain by direct route (olfactory and trigeminal pathways) and indirect (entering systemic circulation and crossing the blood-brain barrier). (b) Olfactory pathway for nose-to-brain delivery of drugs: (1) extraneuronal route, (2) intraneuronal route, (3) through supporting cells, and (4) along supporting cells.
