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(1) Dendritic cells (DC) pass through mucosal epithelial cells to capture NPs in the mucosal layer. (2) NPs can also passively permeate through epithelial junctions to access the underlying DC. (3) A pocket enriched in APC (macrophages-Mφ, DC, and lymphocytes T) created by the M cells, which perform the sampling of the luminal antigens so that the immune cells contact the NP/antigen. (4) NPs can also enter cells through endocytosis and deliver the antigens to cells.
