Table 1.
Gut peptides and their alterations after BS.
| Peptide | Site of Secretion | Effect on Food Intake | Main Functions | Modulation after BS | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ghrelin | P/D1 cells (gastric fundus) | ↑ | -↑ food intake | ↑ AGB ↓ BPD-DS+VSG (-) RYGB |
[127,128,129,130,132,133,135] |
| Gastrin | G cells (pyloric antrum of stomach, duodenum and pancreas) | ↓ | -↑ HCl production -↑ gastric motility |
↓ RYGB (-) VSG |
[152,163,184,247] |
| Leptin | Adipose tissue and gastric EECs | ↓ | -↓ glucose production and steatosis in the liver -↑ glucose uptake and fatty acid oxidation in muscles -↓ insulin and glucagon secretion -↑ sympathetic nervous system tone -↑ thyroid hormones-modulates immunity and fertility |
(-) RYGB, VSG | [218,323,324,328] |
| Obestatin | Stomach | ? | -controversial role in food intake -regulates cell proliferation and survival -regulates glucose and lipid metabolism |
(-) RYGB | [303,304,305,306,307] |
| Nesfatin | EECs (stomach and small intestine), pancreatic cells | ↓ | -↓ appetite -stimulates glucagon and insulin secretion -improves insulin sensitivities |
↓ RYGB ↓ VSG ↓ BPD-DS |
[288,289,290,291,292,345] |
| Gustducin | EECs (stomach and intestine) | ? | -stimulates GLP-1 secretion -promotes absorption of oral glucose |
? | [294,295,296] |
| CCK | I cells (duodenum) | ↓ | -stimulates secretion of digestive enzymes from pancreas -stimulates release of bile from gallbladder -slows down gastric emptying -induces satiety |
↑ RYGB ↑ VSG |
[152,158,166,174] |
| Secretin | S cells (duodenum) | ? | -inhibits secretion of gastric acid -stimulates production of bicarbonate -stimulates bile production |
(-)/↓ RYGB | [282,286,287] |
| Uroguanylin | EECs (duodenum) | ↓ | -induces satiety -↓ water and sodium permeability and chloride secretion in the gut |
↑ RYGB | [297,298,300,302] |
| GIP | K cells (duodenum and jejunum) | ? | -stimulates insulin release -promotes triglyceride storage in the adipocytes |
(-) RYGB (-) VSG (-) AGB |
[199,218,243,244] |
| GLP-1 | L cells (distal ileum and colon) | ↓ | -stimulates post-prandial insulin secretion -delays gastric emptying -inhibits glucagon secretion -↓ appetite centrally |
↑ RYGB ↑ VSG |
[150,158,183,185,196] |
| GLP-2 | EECs in small intestine | ↓ | -stimulates gut hypertrophy -↓ apoptosis |
↓ RYGB ↓ VSG |
[309,310,317,318,319] |
| Glicentin | L cells (ileum) | ? | -may stimulate insulin secretion, gastrointestinal motility and gut growth | ↑ RYGB | [217,219,226] |
| Neurotensin | N cells (ileum and CNS) | ↓ | -inhibits intestinal and gastric motility -↑ fat absorption by increase in pancreas and bile acid secretion |
↑ RYGB ↑ VSG |
[180,230,231,232,233,234,235] |
| OXM | L cells (ileum) | ↓ | -↓ food intake -↓ glucose levels -↓ gastric acid secretion and delays gastric emptying -↑ energy expenditure |
↑ RYGB | [184,211,213,217,219,226] |
| PYY(3-36) | L cells (distal ileum and colon) | ↓ | -delays gastric emptying -↓ appetite centrally -↓ post-prandial insulin production -alters colonic motility |
↑ RYGB ↑ VSG ↑ AGB |
[161,175,176,180] |
| FGF15/19 | Ileum, gallbladder and brain | ↓ | -suppresses bile acid synthesis and gluconeogenesis -promotes glycogen and protein synthesis -↑ energy expenditure |
↑ RYGB ↑ VSG (-) AGB |
[255,257,258,259,261,271] |
AGB: adjustable gastric banding, BPD-DS: biliopancreatic diversion with duodenal switch, CCK: cholecystokinin, EECs: enteroendocrine cells, FGF: fibroblast growth factor, HCl: hydrochloric acid, VSG: vertical sleeve gastrectomy, RYGB: Roux-en-Y gastric bypass, GIP: gastric inhibitory polypeptide, GLP-1: glucagon-like peptide 1, GLP-2: glucagon-like peptide 2, OXM: oxyntomodulin, PYY: peptide YY, ↑: increase, ↓: decrease, (-): no change, ?: unknown.