Table 1.
Studies on the occurrence and fate of PPCPs and pesticides in various water systems in Africa.
| Region | Occurrence | PPCPs and pesticides type | Concentration (μg L−1) | Detection | Fate | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Southern Africa | Surface water | Ibuprofen | 19.2 | HPLC-DAD | Reduces sperm motility and fertilization, influences the hatch rate, motion, locomotion, and gene expression in aquatic organisms | [52] |
| Southern Africa | Wastewater | Ibuprofen | 1.38 | HPLC-MS/MS | Incomplete phase separations, resistant to biodegradation | [26] |
| West Africa | Surface water/groundwater | Dieldrin | 1.51 | GC-ECD | Bioconcentration and biomagnification via terrestrial and aquatic food chains; increase the water solubility of nonpolar compounds | [13] |
| West Africa | Surface water | Dieldrin, endrin, dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), endosulfanaldehyde, and phosphomethylglycine | 0.02–0.15 | GC-ECD | Biomagnification via terrestrial and aquatic food chains | [37] |
| North Africa | Ground water, surface water, wastewater | Ibuprofen, naproxen, ketoprofen, diclofenac | 0.1109–6.554 | GC-MS | Higher toxicity of direct discharge of untreated wastewaters, Implicates removal efficiencies of wastewater treatment plants, pseudo-persistence | [19] |
| West Africa | Surface water | Trimethoprim, Tetracycline, Acetylsalicylic acid, Betasitosterol, Bezafibrate, Chlortetracycline, Clarithromycin, Clofibric acid, Doxycycline, Estradiol, Estriol, Estrone, Etofibrate, Fenofibrate, Fenoprofen, Ibuprofen, Indometacin, Ketoprofen, Mestranol, Pentoxifylline, Phenacetin, Phenazone, Sulfadiazine, Sulfadimidine | 0.01–8.84 | GC-MS | Biomagnification via terrestrial and aquatic food chains | [54] |
| West Africa | Surface water, groundwater | Hydrocortisone, Acetaminophen, Metformin, Gabapentin, Nicotine, Codeine, Sulfamethoxazole, Caffeine, Trimethoprim, Amoxicillin, Tramadol, Metoprolol, Propranolol, Carbamazepine, Erythromycin, DEET, Oxazepam, Mefloquine, Naproxen, Valsartan, Diazepam, Glyburide, Diclofenac, Ibuprofen, Clotrimazole, Meclofenamic acid, Gemfibrozil | 0.003–1.614 | LC-MS/MS | Development of antibiotic-resistant genes in bacterial populations | [14] |
| West Africa | Surface water, wastewater | Equilin, Caffeine, Chloramphenicol, Erythromycin, Ciprofloxacin, Roxithromycin, Sulfamethoxazole, Lincomycin, Acetamidophenol/paracetamol/acetaminophen, Carbamazepine, Diclofenac sodium, Oxybenzone, N, N-dimethyl3-methylbenzamide (DEET), Triclosan, Triclocarban, Sulfathiazole, Methylparaben | 0.001–0.47 | LC-MS/MS | Biomagnification via terrestrial and aquatic food chains | [55] |
| West Africa | Surface water, seawater | Acetaminophen, Amoxicillin | 0.0058–1.23 | HPLC | Biomagnification via terrestrial and aquatic food chains | [42] |
| West Africa | Groundwater | Sulphadoxine, Amodiaquine, Chloroquine | 58–451.6 | HPLC | Persistence and bioaccumulation in the food web | [56] |
| West Africa | Surface water | Oxytetracycline | 0.003–0.0048 | HPLC | Creation of antibiotic-resistant strains in natural bacterial populations | [57] |
| Southern Africa | Surface water, wastewater | Ciprofloxacin, Aspirin, Ampicillin, Nalidixic acid, Ketoprofen, Bezafibrate, Diclofenac, Ibuprofen, Acetaminophen, Sulfamethoxazole, Atenolol, Caffeine, Streptomycin, Tetracycline, Erythromycin, Chloramphenicol, Tylosin | 0.14–0.97 | HPLC-DAD | Development of antibiotic resistance and feminization or masculinization of aquatic organisms, pseudo-persistence | [58, 59] |
| East Africa | Surface water, wastewater | Sulfadoxin, sulfamethoxazole, paracetamol, ibuprofen, sulfamethoxazole, methylparaben, carbamazepine, diclofenac, indomethacin | 100–1000 | UPLC-MS/MS | Persistent, and tend to accumulate, limited biodegradability, easily attached to a particle for transport in water, bioaccumulate in aquatic organisms | [36] |
| West Africa | Seawater | Metronidazole, Trimethoprim, Sulphamethoxazole, Ampicillin, Cloxacillin | 0.07–1.599 | HPLC | Development of antibiotic-resistant genes in bacterial populations | [60] |
| East Africa | Wastewater | Amoxicillin, ampicillin, and ciprofloxacin | 37–367 | HPLC-UV | Incomplete removal during soil passage due to incomplete sorption | [61] |
| North Africa | Surface water | Oxycladine citrate, nepagine, and salbutamol | 0–4.7.0 | Persistent, and tend to accumulate, limited biodegradability, easily attached to a particle for transport in water, bioaccumulate in aquatic organisms | [62] | |
| North Africa | Surface water | Amoxicillin, erythromycin, sulfamethoxazole, tetracycline, ciprofloxacin, oxolinic acid, trimethoprim | 0.0019–4.107 | LC–MS/MS | Development of antibiotic-resistant strains in natural bacterial populations | [18] |
| Northeastern Africa | Surface water, groundwater | Bisphenol A (BPA), methylparaben, ethylparaben, propylparaben, butylparaben, o-phenylphenol | 0.0064–0.071 | UPLC–MS/MS | Elicits adverse effects in reproductive organs of aquatic organisms, bioaccumulation, and biomagnification in the food web | [63] |
| North Africa | Surface water | Acetaminophen, ibuprofen | 0.22–0.9 | HPLC-UV | Development of antibiotic-resistant strains in natural bacterial populations | [64] |
| North Africa | Seawater, groundwater | Chloramphenicol, thiamphenicol, florfenicol, paromomycin, dihydrostreptomycin, kanamycin, apramycin, streptomycin, amikacin, sisomicin, neomycin, gentamycin | 3.4–18.4 | UPLC-MS/MS | Persistence of antibiotic-resistant microorganisms | [65] |
| North Africa | Groundwater, wastewater | Carbamazepine, carbamazepine epoxide, dihydroxycarbamazepine | 0.0102–0.1145 | HPLC | Highly recalcitrant to standard bioremediation; wastewater leaches into groundwater depending on its sorption potential and on its transformation into the soil | [46] |
| Southern Africa | Seawater | Diclofenac, sulfamethoxazole, phenytoin, carbamazepine, lamivudine, caffeine, acetaminophen | 0.010–0.034 | UPLC TQ-MS | Poses an adverse environmental risk to non-targeted organisms via biomagnification in the food chain | [41] |
| North Africa | Wastewater | Carbamazepine, naproxen, ibuprofen | 8.02–132 | HPLC-UV | Incomplete phase separations, resistant to biodegradation | [66] |
| Southern Africa | Surface water, wastewater | Ibuprofen, ketoprofen, diclofenac, naproxen, triclocarban, triclosan, codeine, tramadol, atenolol, chloramphenicol, ciprofloxacin, clarithromycin, tetracycline, acetaminophen, norfloxacin, ofloxacin, sulfamethoxazole, sulfasalazine, azithromycin, trimethoprim, caffeine, dextromethorphan, mephedrone, methamphetamine, cocaine, carbamazepin, cotinine, nicotine, alkylphenol, ethoxylates, fluoxetine, fexofenadine | 0.0276–0.4502 | UPLC/TQD-MS | Back-transformation of contaminants, recurring negative mass balances, decreases efficiency, capacity, and selectivity of contaminant sorption | [53] |
| Southern Africa | Wastewater | Naproxen and ibuprofen, triclosan | 10.7–127.7 | HPLC-UV | Renders traditional sampling approaches insufficient | [67] |
| Southern Africa | Surface water, wastewater | Ciprofoxacin, ofoxacin, norfoxacin, tetracycline, atenolol, triclosan, triclocarban, diclofenac, acetaminophen, ibuprofen, ketoprofen | 0.3–119 | LC- TQ-MS | Low removal rate impedes the growth and survival of aquatic organisms in receiving water bodies | [68] |
| North Africa | Groundwater, wastewater, surface water, | Atenolol, benzafibrate, 1-H-benzotriazole, bisphenol A, caffeine, carbamazepine, diclophenac, ethylparabene, fenofibric acid, furosemide, gemfibrozil, ibuprofene, ibuprofene, ibuprofene, ketoprofene, methlyparabene, metoprolol, naproxen, nonylphenol, o-desmethyl-naproxene, oxazepam, paracetamol, propylparabene, sulfamethoxazole, tolyltriazoles, triclocarban, triclosan, trimethoprim, antibiotic | <0.289 | HPLC, UPLC/MS-MS | Incomplete removal during soil passage due to incomplete sorption and/or biodegradation, high oxygen demand, photodegradation of leads to harmful disposal in surface waters | [69] |
| Southern Africa | Surface water, wastewater | Efavirenz, emtricitabine, lamivudine, nevirapine, ritonavir, zidovudine, 8,14-dihydroxyEfavirenz, 12-hydroxy-Nevirapine, desthiazolylmethyloxycarbonyl ritonavir, Nevirapine-D | <0.172 | LC-MS/MS | Significant losses of polar targets in WWTPs due to low solubility and partial removal, eventual seepage to surface water and groundwater | [70] |
| East Africa | Surface water | Sulfamethoxazole, trimethoprim, ciprofloxacin, lamivudine, nevirapine, zidovudine | 0.509–13.8 | LC-ESI-MS/MS | Development of antimicrobial resistance and possible toxicity to sensitive organisms | [71] |
| Southern Africa | Groundwater | Atrazine, carbamazepine, cinchonidine, cinchonine, diphenylamine, enilconazole, ephedrin, flecainide, fluconazole, hexazinone, imidacloprid, metazachlor, metolachlor, minoxidil, nalidixicacid, paracetamol, phenytoin, sebuthylazine-desethyl, simazine, sulphisomidine, tebuthiuron, telmisartan, temazepam, terbumeton, terbuthylazine, thiabendazole | <0.35 | LC-MS/MS | Low sperm volume and motility, fetal growth defects, increase in DNA damage, congenital anomalies, and cardiovascular | [20] |
| Southern Africa | Wastewater | Efavirenz, nevirapine | 5.5–14.0 | GC-MS | De-conjugation of metabolites in the WWTP, resistance to degradation, lack of binding of the metabolites to the sludge | [72] |
| Southern Africa | Surface water, wastewater | Zalcitabine, tenofovir, abacavir, efavirenz, lamivudine, didanosine, stavudine, zidovudine, nevirapine, indinavir, ritonavir, lopinavir, caffeine | 0.0265–0.43 | LC-MS/MS, UHPLC-MS/MS | Resistant to degradation, ubiquitous occurrence to surface water, promotes the development of drug resistance in other pathogens | [73] |
| Southern Africa | Surface water | Efavirenz, nevirapine, carbamazepine | 0.164–0.593 | LC-MS/MS | Induces antibacterial resistance, neurobehavioral disorders in aquatic animals, diminished predator evasive behavior, less aggressive nest defense | [74] |
| Southern Africa | Wastewater, groundwater | Penciclovir, famciclovir, ribavirin, paracetamol, ketoprofen, diclofenac, fenoprofen, ibuprofen, carbamazepine, primidone, sulfamethoxazole, pindolol | <0.0196 | HPLC- CAD | Inefficient removal in WWTPs, distribution by aqueous transport, food-chain dispersal, mineralization to carbon dioxide and water, adsorption on suspended solids | [75] |
CAD-charged aerosol detector; TQ-MS- triple quadrupole mass spectrometer; GC-ECD-gas chromatography – electron capture detector; LC/MS/MS- liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry; HPLC- high-performance liquid chromatography; UHPLC/MS/MS- ultra high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry; UPLC- ultra performance liquid chromatography; ESI- electrospray ionization.