Table 1. Baseline Clinical Characteristics of Patients by Group Randomization.
| Variable | No. (%) | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Total (N = 2393) | Usual care group (n = 795) | Empowered care group (n = 802) | Team-based empowered care group (n = 796) | |
| Sociodemographic characteristics | ||||
| Age, mean (SD), y | 67.7 (9.8) | 67.9 (9.9) | 67.5 (10.2) | 67.5 (9.4) |
| Men | 1267 (52.9) | 425 (53.5) | 415 (51.7) | 427 (53.6) |
| Women | 1126 (47.1) | 370 (46.5) | 387 (48.3) | 369 (46.4) |
| Race and ethnicitya | ||||
| Chinese | 1068 (44.6) | 363 (45.6) | 355 (44.3) | 350 (43.9) |
| Indian | 190 (8.0) | 57 (7.2) | 62 (7.8) | 71 (8.9) |
| Korean | 355 (14.8) | 118 (14.9) | 120 (15.0) | 117 (14.7) |
| Malay | 295 (12.3) | 98 (12.3) | 100 (12.5) | 97 (12.2) |
| Thai | 161 (6.7) | 53 (6.7) | 55 (6.9) | 53 (6.7) |
| Vietnamese | 316 (13.2) | 103 (13.0) | 105 (13.1) | 108 (13.5) |
| Otherb | 5 (0.3) | 2 (0.2) | 4 (0.4) | 0 |
| ≥College-level education | 484 (20.2) | 150 (18.8) | 166 (20.7) | 169 (21.2) |
| Smoking status | ||||
| Current | 216 (9.0) | 77 (9.7) | 68 (8.5) | 70 (8.8) |
| Previous | 446 (18.7) | 145 (18.2) | 156 (19.5) | 146 (18.3) |
| Diabetic and metabolic profile, mean (SD) | ||||
| Diabetes duration, y | 16.4 (9.8) | 16.1 (9.8) | 16.5 (9.8) | 16.6 (9.9) |
| Age at diagnosis, y | 51.2 (11.6) | 51.8 (11.6) | 51.0 (11.8) | 50.9 (11.4) |
| BMI | 26.9 (4.8) | 26.8 (4.5) | 27.1 (4.9) | 26.9 (4.8) |
| Waist circumference, cm | ||||
| Men | 95.8 (11.0) | 95.5 (10.6) | 96.1 (11.5) | 95.9 (10.9) |
| Women | 92.8 (11.8) | 93.0 (11.7) | 92.7 (11.8) | 92.7 (11.9) |
| BP, mm Hg | ||||
| Systolic | 139.0 (18.6) | 139.0 (19.5) | 138.0 (17.6) | 138.0 (18.5) |
| Diastolic | 74.3 (11.1) | 74.2 (11.1) | 74.4 (10.7) | 74.2 (11.6) |
| HbA1c level, % | 7.9 (1.6) | 7.9 (1.7) | 7.8 (1.6) | 7.9 (1.7) |
| HbA1c level, mmol/mol | 62.5 (17.8) | 62.4 (18.3) | 62.1 (17.2) | 63.0 (18.1) |
| Fasting plasma glucose level, mmol/L | 8.2 (3.4) | 8.3 (3.4) | 8.1 (3.3) | 8.1 (3.5) |
| Total cholesterol level, mmol/L | 4.4 (1.1) | 4.4 (1.1) | 4.4 (1.1) | 4.3 (1.1) |
| Triglyceride level, mmol/L | 1.9 (1.3) | 1.9 (1.3) | 1.9 (1.4) | 1.9 (1.3) |
| HDL-cholesterol level, mmol/L | 1.2 (0.4) | 1.2 (0.4) | 1.2 (0.4) | 1.2 (0.4) |
| LDL-cholesterol level, mmol/L | 2.4 (1.1) | 2.3 (0.9) | 2.4 (1.1) | 2.4 (1.2) |
| eGFR, mL/min/1.73m2 | 49.8 (16.3) | 50.6 (16.5) | 49.0 (15.7) | 49.6 (16.8) |
| Urinary ACR, mg/mmol | 62.6 (148.0) | 58.6 (131.0) | 61.2 (143.0) | 68.2 (149.0) |
| General obesityc | 1466 (61.3) | 495 (62.3) | 495 (61.7) | 477 (59.9) |
| Hypertensiond | 2249 (94.0) | 744 (93.6) | 755 (94.1) | 750 (94.3) |
| Dyslipidemiae | 2287 (95.6) | 762 (95.9) | 770 (95.9) | 755 (94.9) |
| Complications at baseline | ||||
| eGFR <65 mL/min/1.73m2 | 2143 (89.6) | 706 (88.8) | 731 (91.1) | 707 (88.8) |
| Macroalbuminuria | 866 (36.2) | 283 (35.6) | 293 (36.6) | 290 (36.4) |
| CAD | 506 (21.1) | 161 (20.3) | 168 (20.9) | 177 (22.2) |
| Stroke | 200 (8.4) | 69 (8.7) | 64 (8.0) | 67 (8.4) |
| PAD | 161 (6.7) | 54 (6.8) | 60 (7.5) | 47 (5.9) |
| Any CVD | 738 (30.9) | 241 (30.3) | 245 (30.6) | 252 (31.7) |
| CHF | 95 (4.0) | 27 (3.4) | 39 (4.9) | 29 (3.6) |
| Cancer | 119 (5.0) | 35 (4.4) | 42 (5.2) | 42 (5.3) |
| Diabetic retinopathy | 469 (19.6) | 159 (20.0) | 145 (18.0) | 165 (20.7) |
| Peripheral neuropathy | 598 (25.0) | 188 (23.7) | 209 (26.1) | 201 (25.3) |
| Medication use at baseline | ||||
| RAAS inhibitors | 1665 (69.6) | 550 (69.2) | 551 (68.7) | 564 (70.9) |
| BP-lowering drugs | 2003 (83.7) | 668 (84.0) | 659 (82.2) | 676 (84.9) |
| Lipid-lowering drugs | 1851 (77.4) | 626 (78.7) | 614 (76.6) | 611 (76.8) |
| Noninsulin glucose-lowering drugs | 1977 (82.6) | 668 (84.0) | 650 (81.0) | 659 (82.8) |
| Insulin | 1135 (47.4) | 347 (43.6) | 387 (48.3) | 401 (50.4) |
| Diabetes self-care in past 3 mo | ||||
| SMBG at least once per wk | 1379 (57.6) | 441 (55.5) | 476 (59.3) | 462 (58.1) |
| Physical exercise at least 3 times per wk | 951 (39.7) | 314 (39.5) | 326 (40.6) | 311 (39.1) |
| Adherence to balanced diet | 1928 (80.6) | 637 (80.1) | 661 (82.5) | 631 (79.2) |
| At least 2 self-care activities | 1487 (64.6) | 507 (63.8) | 529 (66.0) | 510 (64.1) |
| Metabolic targets | ||||
| HbA1c level <7.0% (53 mmol/mol) | 783 (32.7) | 278 (34.9) | 260 (32.4) | 245 (30.8) |
| BP <130/80 mm Hg | 671 (28.1) | 228 (28.7) | 213 (26.5) | 230 (28.9) |
| LDL-cholesterol level <1.8 mmol/L | 636 (26.6) | 208 (26.2) | 203 (25.3) | 225 (28.2) |
| Triglyceride level <1.7 mmol/L | 1289 (53.9) | 434 (54.5) | 430 (53.6) | 425 (53.4) |
| ≥3 treatment targets | 830 (34.7) | 273 (34.3) | 276 (34.4) | 283 (35.5) |
Abbreviations: ACR, albumin to creatinine ratio; BMI, body mass index (calculated as weight in kilograms divided by height in meters squared); BP, blood pressure; CAD, coronary artery disease; CHF, congestive heart failure; CVD, cardiovascular disease; eGFR, estimated glomerular filtration rate; HbA1c, glycated hemoglobin; HDL, high-density lipoprotein; LDL, low-density lipoprotein; PAD, peripheral artery disease; RAAS, renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system; SMBG, self-monitoring of blood glucose.
SI conversion factor: to convert HbA1c to the proportion of total hemoglobin, multiply by 0.01.
Race and ethnicity were self-reported and verified by attending clinicians.
Other ethnicity categories were not reported by the participating sites.
General obesity was defined as BMI greater than or equal to 25.
Hypertension was defined as BP of 130/80 mm Hg or higher and/or use of BP-lowering drugs.
Dyslipidemia was defined as LDL-cholesterol level greater than or equal to 1.8 mmol/L and/or use of lipid-lowering drugs.