Table 1.

Evidence supporting antiviral effects of hMOS via the receptor decoy mechanism.

Virus	Glycans	Mechanisms and Functions	References
Coronavirus
MERS-CoV	α2,3-sialytated glycans	Mimic sialylated attachment receptor; bind to MERS-CoV spike protein; may inhibit MER-CoV spike-DPP4 interaction and block viral entry into host cells	[51]
SARS-CoV	A-type HBGA	Co-localized with the transfected SARS-CoV spike protein	[36]
SARS-CoV-2	A-type HBGA	Bind to SARS-CoV-2 RBD of spike protein; may modulate viral entry	[37]
	Sialylated glycans	Bind to SARS-CoV-2; may modulate viral entry	[52]
HIV	Lex	Block DC-SIGN on dendritic cells to prevent HIV gp120 envelop protein interaction; inhibit DC-SIGN-mediated transfer of HIV-1 to CD4 + T lymphocyte	[46,47]
Influenza virus Avian influenza	3′SL, 6′SL	Mimic sialylated host cell receptor; block Influenza virus envelop protein, haemagglutinin, interacting with host cells	[48,49]
Novovirus	2′FL, 3FL, LNFP I	Mimic HBGAs; block human novovirus P domain or capsid protein interacting with blood group–active mucin-typeO-glycans on host cell surface	[39,40,41,42]
Rotavirus
G1 [8], G2P [4]	2′FL, 3′SL, 6′SL	Inhibit viral infectivity	[44]
P [8]	LNB	Mimic secretory H type-1 antigen; bind Rotavirus VP8* and inhibit viral infectivity	[45]
RV OSU	3′SL, 6′SL	Inhibit viral cellular binding and infectivity	[43]

Abbreviations: 2′FL, 2′-fucosyllactose; 3′SL, 3′-sialyllactose; 6′SL, 6′-sialyllactose; DC-SIGN, dendritic cell-specific ICAM3-grabbing non-integrin; DPP4, dipeptidyl peptidase 4; FECV, Feline enteric coronavirus; HBGA, Histo-blood group antigen; HIV, human immunodeficiency virus; hMOS, Human milk oligosaccharides; LDFH I, Lacto-N-difucohexaose I; Le^x, Lewis X; LNB, Lacto-N-biose; LNFP I, Lacto-N-fucopentaose I; RBD, Receptor-binding domain.