TABLE 1—

Comparing the Paris Climate Agreement With Existing Global AMR Efforts

Essential Elements	Paris Climate Agreement	Current Global AMR Efforts
1. Collective global goal	Keep global temperature rise below 1.5°C above preindustrial levels or at least well below 2°C	No consensus on what a collective global goal could look like
2. A focus on social and economic transformation	Implementation of the Paris Agreement requires social and economic transformation to decarbonize national economies.	AMR discourse has historically emphasized individual behavior instead of social and economic transformation.
3. Nationally determined contributions pledged, reviewed, and ratcheted every 5 years	All parties must communicate their nationally determined contributions every 5 years and, during revisions, aim for maximally ambitious goals. Nationally determined contributions are reviewed to ensure the distribution of responsibilities is fair and that countries are ambitious in their goals. All parties must regularly provide information on activities and outcomes using methods that are articulated by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.	All WHO member states committed to having national action plans for AMR. Even though this commitment is not legally binding, more than 100 countries have published plans, and many are under development. However, there are no specified review, intensification, or accountability mechanisms, and little financial, technical, and infrastructural support is provided for achieving necessary policies. WHO, FAO, and OIE conduct self-assessment surveys on national AMR activities, but there is no regular reporting or standard methodology for reporting outcomes.
4. Annual multistakeholder forum	The annual Conference of the Parties to the UNFCCC serves as a multistakeholder meeting place for advancing the Paris Agreement.	AMR is normally discussed every 3 years at the World Health Assembly, but there is no formal or regular meeting focused on AMR and no permanent forum for multistakeholder discussions on AMR across sectors.
5. Global scientific stock taking every 5 years	Requirement to assess the best available science every 5 years; this stock-taking exercise will help ensure that the Paris Agreement’s ongoing efforts are in line with scientific best practices.	No relevant comparison
6. International legal framework	The Paris Agreement is a legally binding instrument of the UNFCCC. The UNFCCC provides a broader legal framework for the Paris Agreement.	No international legal framework, although the constituting instruments of the WHO, FAO, OIE, or UN could serve as the broader legal framework for a legally binding AMR agreement

Note. AMR = antimicrobial resistance; FAO = Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations; OIE = World Organization for Animal Health; UN = United Nations; UNFCCC = United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change; WHO = World Health Organization.

Source. Rogers Van Katwyk et al.¹⁵