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. 2022 Mar 2;1(1):pgac002. doi: 10.1093/pnasnexus/pgac002

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© The Author(s) 2022. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the National Academy of Sciences.

This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted reuse, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

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Fig. 1. — Collective electrotaxis step response induces a spatiotemporal effect in epithelial tissues persisting long after stimulation. (A) Diagram of electro-bioreactor providing electrical stimulation in the x-axis and perfusion of fresh media in the y-axis through the chamber containing three 5 × 5 mm tissues. (B) Phase contrast image of a single MDCK epithelial tissue; annotations denote specific regions analyzed throughout the paper. (C) Trace of electrical stimulation step response stimulus: 1 h unstimulated, 3 h ‘rightward’ stimulation, and 6 h poststimulation. (D)–(F) Single tissue heatmaps of velocity in the x-direction, aligned with the direction of electric field (red). Note that (E) indicates large increase in the rightward collective motion during stimulation, while (F) indicates a new relaxation behavior hours after stimulation. See Figure S1 (Supplementary Material). for corresponding control tissue heatmaps. (G)–(I) Analogous heatmaps of velocity in the y-axis, perpendicular to the direction of electric field. Note again the new pattern long after stimulation ended in (I), despite minimal apparent changes during stimulation in (H).