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. 2021 Jun 13;51(2):105–117. doi: 10.1007/s00249-021-01551-3

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© The Author(s) 2021

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Fig. 1 — Schematic of organoids developmental process. a Pluripotent stem cells (PSCs) require a first step of induction toward a specific germ-layer (Activin-A and BMP4 for Mesoderm, Wnt and BMP4 for ectoderm and Activin A for Endoderm). Germ-layer specification is then followed by organoids maturation that occurs as a result of self-organization and tissue-specific growth factors leading to mature organoids: blood vessel and kidney (mesoderm), brain (ectoderm), liver, thyroid, intestine, stomach, lung (endoderm). b Adult stem cells (AdSCs) are tissue-specific therefore organoids specification and maturation is obtained through tissue-specific growth factors and self-organization (e.g. pancreas, endometrium, liver, prostate, stomach, intestine, lung). Bone morphogenetic protein 4 (BMP4); wingless-related integration site (Wnt)