Table 1.
The probiotic-like effect of polysaccharides in treating metabolic diseases.
| Polysaccharides | Experimental models | Improvement of metabolic diseases | Regulation of gut microbiota | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Artemisia sphaerocephala Krasch polysaccharides (200, 400, and 800 mg/kg) | HFD-fed KM mice (Obesity) | Reduce hepatic lipid metabolism, dyslipidemia, and metabolic endotoxaemia. | Proteobacteria, AF12, and Helicobacter ↓ | Li et al., 2020b |
| Dictyophora indusiata polysaccharides (200, 400 mg/kg) | HFD-fed BALB/C mice (Obesity) | Reduce fat accumulation, adipocyte size, glucose levels, endotoxin, and inflammatory cytokines. | Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio ↓ | Kanwal et al., 2020 |
| Microalgae polysaccharides (400 mg/kg) | HFD-fed C57BL/6 mice (Obesity) | Reduce glucose tolerance impairment, dyslipidemia, systemic inflammation, and fat deposition. | Clostridia, Bacterioidia, Mollicutes ↑ Actinobacteria, Verrucomicrobia ↓ | Guo et al., 2021a |
| Modified apple polysaccharides (1,000 mg/kg) | HFD-fed C57BL/6J mice (Obesity) | Reduce body weight, fat index, lipid and glucose metabolism. |
Bacteroidetes, Bacteroides, and Lactobacillus ↑ Fusobacterium↓ |
Li et al., 2020d |
|
Raphanus sativus Polysaccharides (2, 4 mg/kg) |
HFD-fed C57BL/6J mice (Obesity) | Reduce weight gain, and serum triglyceride, endotoxin; improve gut permeability. |
Verrucomicrobia ↑ Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio ↓ |
Do et al., 2021 |
| WuGuChong polysaccharides (300 mg/kg) | HFD-fed C57BL/6 mice (Obesity) | Reduce liver steatosis, adipose hypertrophy, serum lipids, insulin resistance, and glucose tolerance. | Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio, Proteobacteria ↓ | Wang et al., 2020 |
| Hirsutella sinensis polysaccharides (20 mg/kg) | HFD-fed C57BL/6J mice (Obesity) | Reduce systemic inflammation; improve insulin sensitivity, lipid metabolism, and gut integrity. | Parabacteroides goldsteinii. ↑ | Wu et al., 2019b |
| Brown seaweed polysaccharides | HFD-fed BALB/c mice (Obesity) | Reduce weight gain, fat accumulation, lipid abnormality, and inflammation. | SCFAs contents, Bacteroidales ↑ Clostridiales ↓ |
Zheng et al., 2021 |
|
Momordica charantia Polysaccharides (50, 100, and 200 mg/kg) |
HFD-fed SD rats (Obesity) | Improve the glycosphingolipids, glycerophospholipids, and amino acid metabolism. | Actinobacteria, Coprococcus, Lactobacillus ↑ Proteobacteria, and Helicobacter ↓ | Wen et al., 2021 |
| Laminaria japonica polysaccharides | HFD-fed BALB/c mice (Obesity) | Improve fat accumulation, lipids profile, body composition, and the morphology of the intestine. | Bacteroidales, Rikenellaceae ↑ | Duan et al., 2019 |
| Pleurotus eryngii polysaccharides | HFD-fed C57BL/6J mice (Obesity) | Reduce weight gain, serum cholesterol levels; improve lipid and total bile acids. | SCFAs-producing gut bacteria, Anaerostipes, Clostridium ↑ | Nakahara et al., 2020 |
| Enteromorpha clathrate polysaccharides (400 mg/kg) | HFD-fed C57BL/6J mice (Obesity) | Reduce the body weight and serum triacylglycerol and cholesterol levels. | SCFAs-producing gut bacterium, Eubacterium xylanophilum ↑ | Wei et al., 2021 |
| Lycium barbarum polysaccharides | HFD-fed ICR mice (Obesity) | Reduce serum cholesterol and triglycerides levels, the number and size of adipocytes. | SCFAs-producing gut bacteria, Lacticigenium Lachnospiraceae, and Butyricicoccus ↑ | Yang et al., 2021b |
| Polygonatum odoratum Polysaccharides (400 mg/kg) | HFD-fed SD rats (Obesity) | Reduce weight gain, fat accumulation, adipocyte size, liver triglycerides, and liver cholesterol content. | SCFAs, isobutyric acid, butyric acid, valeric acid ↑ Actinobacteria, Proteobacteria, and Sutterella ↓ | Wang et al., 2018b |
| Ganoderma lucidum Polysaccharides (100, 300 mg/kg) | HFD-fed C57BL/6J mice (Obesity) | Reduce fat accumulation hyperlipidemia, and inflammation; maintain intestinal barrier function. | SCFAs, acetate, and butyrate ↑ | Sang et al., 2021 |
| Stichopus japonicus Polysaccharides (300 mg/kg) | HFD-fed BALB/c mice (Obesity) | Reduce body weight, serum lipid, liver hypertrophy, insulin resistance, and inflammatory. | SCFAs contents, Akkermansia ↑ Proteobacteria ↓ |
Zhu et al., 2018 |
| Mulberry leaf polysaccharides (200, 400, and 800 mg/kg) | HFD-fed C57BL/6J mice (Obesity) | Reduce body weight gain, and hepatic steatosis; improve lipid metabolism. | SCFAs contents ↑ Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio ↓ |
Li et al., 2021c |
| Ostrea rivularis polysaccharides (125, 250, and 500 mg/kg) | HFD-fed zebrafish (Hyperlipidemia) | Reduce serum and hepatic lipid levels, and the hepatosomatic index, lipid droplets in hepatocytes. |
Acidobacteria, Bacteroidetes, and Verrucomicrobia ↑ Proteobacteria, Cohaesibacter ↓ |
Kong et al., 2021 |
| Selenium-Rich Cordyceps militaris polysaccharides (50, 100, and 200 mg/kg) | HFD-fed C57BL/6J mice (Hyperlipidemia) | Reduce the body weight, fat content, serum lipid, lipid gene expression, appetite hormone, and inflammation. |
Akkermansia ↑ Dorea, Clostridium, Lactobacillus, and Ruminococcus ↓ |
Yu et al., 2021 |
| Chenopodium quinoa polysaccharides (300, 600 mg/kg) | HFD-fed SD rats (Hyperlipidemia) | Reduce serum total triglyceride (TG), cholesterol, malondialdehyde (MDA), and total glutamic pyruvic transaminase. |
Firmicutes/Bacteroides ratio ↓ Proteobacteria, Desulfovibrio, and Allobaculum ↓ |
Cao et al., 2020 |
| Grifola frondose polysaccharides (100, 400 mg/kg) | HFD-fed Wistar rats (Hyperlipidemia) | Reduce serum total triglyceride levels, total cholesterol, free fatty acids, and hepatic lipid accumulation and steatosis. | Helicobater, Barnesiella, Parasutterella, Flavonifracter ↑ Butyricicoccus and Turicibacter ↓ | Li et al., 2019a |
| Holothuria Leucospilota Polysaccharides (100, 200 mg/kg) | HFD-fed Wistar rats (Hyperlipidemia) | Reduce serum lipid levels, liver histological abnormalities, lipogenesis-related hormones, and inflammatory. | SCFAs contents ↑ | Yuan et al., 2019 |
| Cyclocarya paliurus polysaccharides (400 mg/kg) | HFD/STZ-fed SD rats (T2DM) | Reduce blood glucose levels; improve glucose tolerance, and serum lipid parameters. | SCFAs contents, SCFAs-producing gut microbiota, Ruminococcus, Anaerotruncus ↑ | Yao et al., 2020 |
| Nigella sativa seed polysaccharides (35, 70, and 140 mg/kg) | HFD/STZ-fed KM mice(T2DM) | Reduce fasting blood glucose, glycosylated serum protein, cholesterol, triglycerides, malondialdehyde, and inflammatory, and improve insulin resistance. | Bacteroides, Muribaculaceae ↑ | Dong et al., 2020 |
| Grifola frondosa polysaccharides (300, 900 mg/kg) | HFD/STZ-fed KM mice(T2DM) | Reduced fasting blood glucose (FBG), glucose tolerance, cholesterol, triglyceride, and hepatic free fatty acids. |
Alistipes ↑ Streptococcus, Staphylococcus, and Enterococcus ↓ |
Guo et al., 2020 |
| Camellia sinensis polysaccharides (100, 200, and 400 mg/kg) | HFD/STZ-fed Wistar rats (T2DM) | Reduce fasting blood glucose, and total cholesterol and triglyceride levels, and free fatty acid. | Lachnospira, and Victivallis, SCFAs contents ↑ | Li et al., 2020a |
| Cyclocarya paliurus polysaccharides (200, 300, and 400 mg/kg) | HFD/STZ-fed Wistar rats (T2DM) | Reduce fasting blood glucose, inflammation, and serum hormones; improve insulin sensitivity. | SCFAs contents, Ruminococcaceae ↑ | Li et al., 2021b |
| Momordica charantia polysaccharides (50, 100, and 200 mg/kg) | HFD/STZ-fed Wistar rats (T2DM) | Reduce fasting blood glucose, insulin levels, serum lipids, hyperglycemia, hyperlipidemia and oxidative stress. | SCFAs contents, Prevotella loescheii, Lactococcus laudensis ↑ | Gao et al., 2018 |
| Pumpkin polysaccharides (100, 200 mg/kg) | HFD/STZ-fed C57BL/6J mice (T2DM) | Reduce fasting blood glucose, insulin resistance, and blood lipid levels. |
Akkermansia ↑ Erysipelotrichaceae ↓ |
Wu et al., 2021 |
| Pumpkin polysaccharides (100, 200 mg/kg) | HFD/STZ-fed Wistar rats (T2DM) | Improve insulin tolerance, and reduce the levels of serum glucose and total cholesterol. | SCFAs contents ↑ | Liu et al., 2018 |
| Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharides (400 mg/kg) | HFD/STZ-fed SD rats (T2DM) | Reduce fasting blood glucose, and insulin, total cholesterol, and systematic inflammation; and improve anti-oxidant ability. | Blautia, Bacteroides, Dehalobacterium, Parabacteroides ↑ Aerococcus, Corynebactrium, Ruminococcus, and Proteus ↓ | Chen et al., 2020b |
| Coix seed polysaccharides (175, 350 mg/kg) | HFD/STZ-fed C57BL/6J mice (T2DM) | Reduce fasting blood glucose, body weight, serum lipid parameters; and improve glucose tolerance | SCFAs contents ↑ Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio ↓ |
Xia et al., 2021 |
| Glucomannans (160 mg/kg) | HFD/STZ-fed Wistar rats (T2DM) | Reduce fasting blood glucose. |
Firmicutes ↑ Bacteroidetes, Proteobacteria ↓ |
Chen et al., 2021a |
| Astragalus mongholicus polysaccharides | HFD-fed C57BL/6J mice (NAFLD) | Reduce body weight, fat index, liver triglycerides, hepatic steatosis, and pro-inflammatory cytokines. | Desulfovibrio genus, especially D. vulgaris↑ | Hong et al., 2021 |
| Noni fruit polysaccharides (100 mg/kg) | HFD-fed SD rats (NAFLD) | Reduce body weight gain, and improve lipid metabolism, and hepatic oxidative stress, inflammation. | SCFAs contents ↑ gut microbiota diversity and composition ↑ |
Yang et al., 2020b |
| Walnut green husk polysaccharides (600 mg/kg) | HFD-fed SD rats (NAFLD) | Reduce weight gain, inflammation, and improve oxidative stress, lipid metabolism, and colonic tissue injury. | SCFAs content, Prevotellaceae, Allobaculum ↑ | Wang et al., 2021 |
| Lycium barbarum polysaccharides (50 mg/kg) | HFD-fed SD rats (NAFLD) | Reduce hepatic inflammation, and improve intestinal barrier, insulin resistance, glucose tolerance, and lipid metabolic indices. | SCFAs contents, Bacteroidetes ↑ | Gao et al., 2021b |
| Ophiopogon japonicus polysaccharides | HFD-fed C57BL/6J mice (NAFLD) | Improve hepatic lipid metabolism, liver injury, serum and intestinal inflammatory. | SCFAs-producing bacteria, Butyricimonas, Roseburia ↑ | Wang et al., 2019 |
| Mussel polysaccharides | HFD-fed SD rats (NAFLD) | Reduce blood lipid levels, hepatic triglyceride and lipid accumulation, and AST, ALT. | SCFAs contents ↑ | Wu et al., 2019a |
| Laminaria japonica polysaccharides | HFD-fed C57BL/6 mice (NAFLD) | Reduce serum triglycerides, glucose, cholesterol, liver steatosis and hepatocellular ballooning. |
Verrucomicrobia, Bacteroides, and Akkermansia ↑ Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio ↓ |
Zhang et al., 2021b |
|
Pearsonothuria graeffei polysaccharides (20, 80 mg/kg) |
HFD-fed C57BL/6J mice (MetS) | Reduce weight gains, serum inflammatory cytokines, macrophages infiltrating; and improve hyperlipidemia, and liver steatosis. |
Actinobacteria, Bacteroidetes ↑ Firmicutes, Proteobacteria ↓ |
Li et al., 2018 |
| Flaxseed polysaccharides | HFD-fed C57BL/6 J mice (MetS) | Reduce serum fasting glucose, total triglyceride, and total cholesterol levels. | SCFAs contents, Akkermansia, Bifidobacterium ↑ Oscillospira, Odoribacteraceae ↓ | Yang et al., 2020a |
| Pacific abalone polysaccharides | HFD-fed BALB/c mice (MetS) | Reduce weight gain, fat accumulation; and improve lipid metabolism. | SCFAs contents ↑ Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio ↓ |
Wu et al., 2020 |
| Isostichopus Badionotus polysaccharides (20, 40 mg/kg) | HFD-fed C57BL/6J mice (MetS) | Improve obesity, hyperglycemia, hyperlipidemia, liver steatosis, inflammation, and adipocyte hypertrophy. | Barnesiella, Bacteroides, Porphyromonadaceae ↑ Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio, Allobaculum, Lachnospiraceae ↓ | Li et al., 2019b |
| Fuzhuan brick tea polysaccharides (200, 400, and 800 mg/kg) | HFD-fed C57BL/6 mice (MetS) | Reduce body weight gain, liver weight, and hepatic lipid deposition. | Coriobacteriaceae, Erysipelotrichaceae ↑ Streptococcaceae ↓ | Chen et al., 2018 |
| Flammulina velutipes polysaccharides | HFD-fed C57BL/6J mice (MetS) | Improve obesity, hyperlipidemia and insulin resistance. |
Bifidobacteriaceae, Lactobacillaceae Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio ↓ |
Zhao et al., 2021a |
| Undaria pinnatifida polysaccharides (500 mg/kg) | HFD-fed BALB/c mice (MetS) | Reduce weight gain, fat accumulation and improve metabolic disorders. |
Bacteroidetes ↑ Firmicutes ↓ |
Jiang et al., 2021 |