Table 3.

Methods of biomarkers detection for early diagnosis of AKI

Category	Probe/Method name	Target biomarker	Advantages	Refs
Near-infrared fluorescence imaging probe	NIR-O2.-	O2.-	It is the first near-infrared fluorescent O2.- probe in AKI detection.	172
	MRP1-3	caspase-3, NAG,O2.-	HPβCD enhance its renal clearance rate	93
	TA-TPABQ	H2O2	raw nano-material enhance its renal clearance rate	94
	KNP-1	ONOO-	good renal targeting	95
	KTP5-ICG-GNP	ROS	Realize long-term monitoring of renal dysfunction	99
	Naph-O2.-	O2.-	Imaging depth up to 130μm	172
	MUR1-3	GGT,AAP,NAG	multiple optical analysis improve accuracy	145
Chemiluminescence Imaging Probe	MRPD	O2.-	Dual channel detection is more reliable	93
	NCR1	O2.-	Higher resolution and less optical signal loss	106
	NCR2	ONOO-	Higher resolution and less optical signal loss	106
Photoacoustic Molecular Imaging Probe	FDOCl-22	HOCl	high renal clearance rate and deep imaging depth	108
	SiRho-HD	ONOO-	self-calibrate and eliminate interference.	110
	FPRR	GGT	High imaging depth	139
Electrochemical immunosensor	Peptide-mediated sensor	NGAL	Good stability and short analysis time	127
	Aptamer-mediated sensor	NGAL	Good stability and short analysis time; reusable	129
	Homogeneous electrochemiluminescence biosensor	miRNA-21	high sensitivity	170
Surface plasmon resonance biosensor	Refreshable nanobiosensor	NGAL	Good stability, reusable	133
Surface enhanced raman spectroscopy	SERS specific immunoassay	NGAL	Different molecular forms of NGAL can be distinguished	135
Fluorescence immunoassay	Flamma675- CNRRRA	KIM-1	In vivo imaging, earlier diagnosis	152
Nanoflare sensor	Spherical nucleic acid-based mRNA nanoflares	KIM-1	Direct detection of mRNA, earlier diagnosis	153
Point-of-Care Testing	PGM	miRNA-21	Real-time monitoring, portable	168