Table 2.

Ions released from bioceramic-based scaffolds for treating bone implant-associated infection.

Categories	Scaffolds (e.g.)	Released ions	Antibacterial mechanisms	Bacteria used for antibacterial assays	Ref.
Alkali and alkaline earth ions	CaO–P2O5–SiO2–RbO MBG scaffold; Forsterite scaffold	Ca2+, Na+, Mg2+, Rb+	Inducing the increase of solution pH and osmotic pressure	S. aureus, E. coli, S. epidermidis, P. aeruginosa	[30,[57], [58], [59], [60], [61], [62]]
Heavy metal ions	Ag@rGO modified β-TCP scaffold	Ag+	Inducing ROS; Breaking bacterial cell membranes	S. aureus, E.coli, Bacillus subtills	[19,35,[63], [64], [65], [66], [67], [68], [69], [70], [71], [72], [73], [74]]
	PCL/SiO2–CaO–P2O5–ZnO MBG scaffold	Zn2+	Destabilizing membrane and enhancing permeability; Deactivating nucleic acids and enzymes; Killing bacterial by inducing ROS	E. coli, S. aureus	[[75], [76], [77], [78], [79], [80], [81]]
	SiO2–CaO–P2O5–CuO MBG scaffold	Cu2+	Disrupting bacterial cell wall; Inhibiting DNA replication; Inducing ROS to inhibit bacterial growth	E. coli, S. aureus	[[82], [83], [84], [85]]
Other ions	Na2O–CaO–P2O5–La2O3 BG scaffold	La3+	Causing leakage of cell contents; Inactivating genetic materials, enzymes and proteins; Bacterial apoptosis	S. aureus, E. coli	[86]
	ZrO2 modified Chitosan/poly (ethylene glycol)/nano-hydroxyapatite scaffold	Zr4+	Interacting with sulphur-containing proteins and DNA; Attacking respiratory chain; Inhibiting cell division and causing death	E. coli, B. ereus, L. fusiformis	[87]
	KI-loaded bilayer scaffold	I−	Damaging cell membrane by reacting with respiratory chain-associated enzymes and membrane proteins	S. aureus, E. coli	[88]