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. 2022 Mar 31;12:5496. doi: 10.1038/s41598-022-09410-7

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© The Author(s) 2022

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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S1 protein induces astrocyte and microglia activation in the hippocampus. (a, c) Representative images of immunohistochemistry with GFAP and Iba-1 antibodies show activation of astrocytes (GFAP⁺, green) and microglia (Iba-1⁺, purple) after stereotaxic S1 protein administration (n = 5, scale bar = 500 for left and 250 µm for middle and right). (b) Mean fluorescence intensity (MFI) of GFAP⁺ signal measured in CA1 and DG regions of dorsal hippocampus (upper) and ventral hippocampus (bottom). (d) Microglia activation was characterized by morphological parameters such as total branch length (upper left) and radius of cell area (bottom left). Representative pictures of microglia in the saline (Control)- or S1 protein-injected mice (right, scale bar = 25 µm). Data are presented as the `mean ± s.e.m. Statistical results are for unpaired t-tests. *** p < 0.001.