Figure 1. Next-generation approaches for ESRD.

(A) The automated wearable artificial kidney is designed to perform continuous dialysis throughout the day with increased portability. The implantable bioartificial kidney is a surgically implanted device that mimics a native kidney. (B) The 3D cell bioprinting technique allows layer-by-layer stacking of cells and facilitates further development of both kidney organoid and kidney-on-a-chip technologies. (C) Clinical transplantation tolerance trials using chimerism induction approaches have made substantial progress with safety. (D) Pigs that have been genetically engineered, including by deletion of pig xenoantigens and insertion of protective human transgenes to induce immunologic tolerance, are currently available.