TABLE 1.

The changes and functions of gut microbiota in CKD state.

Bacteria	Changes	Key functions	References
Firmicutes
Lactobacillus	Decrease	Reverse inflammation and prevent the progression of kidney damage; protect CVD.	Yoshifuji et al. (2016), Xu et al. (2019)
Ruminococcaceae	Decrease	The production of butyrate has a protective effect on CKD and CVD	Jiang et al. (2017), Ahrens et al. (2021)
Enterococcus	Increase	Positively correlated with TMAO levels, and may serve as a biomarker of CVD.	Jiang et al, (2017), Xu et al. (2017), Liu et al. (2019)
Actinobacteria
Bifidobacterium	Decrease	Promote colon health and produce SCFAs, delaying CKD progression.	Ranganathan et al. (2009), Vaziri et al. (2013a), Wang et al. (2020a)
Eggerthella lenta	Increase	Increase uremic toxins production and promote renal disease development in a CKD rat model.	Wang et al. (2020a)
Bacteroidetes
Bacteroides	Decrease	Prevent CVD by reducing fecal LPS levels and suppressing immune response.	Vaziri et al. (2013a), Yang et al. (2018), Yoshida et al. (2020)
Prevotella	Decrease	Improve intestinal environment, thereby alleviating the progression of CKD and the accumulation of uremic toxins.	Mishima et al. (2015), Jiang et al. (2017), Xu et al. (2017)
Proteobacteria
Escherichia coli	Increase	Convert tryptophan into indole by tryptophanase, and then into IS, aggravating CKD, CVD and intestinal injury.	Devlin et al. (2016), Jin et al. (2019), Huang et al. (2020b)
Verrucomicrobia
Akkermansia	Decrease	Protect intestinal mucosa; negatively correlated with the progression of CKD and CVD.	Li et al. (2019), Wang et al. (2020b)