TABLE 2.
Advantages and disadvantages of animal models of PTE
| Model | Advantages | Disadvantages |
|---|---|---|
| CCI | Produces similar histopathology to the human condition, including concussion, acute subdural hematoma, loss of cortical tissue, axonal injury, inflammation, loss of gray matter, and blood-brain barrier dysfunction | Varied incidence of epilepsy between research groups and cohorts |
| Increased seizure susceptibility to chemical convulsants | Prolonged time-course for the development of SRS and some comorbidities | |
| Decreased seizure threshold to electrical stimulation | Mechanical variation | |
| Demonstrates persistent sensori-functional and cognitive deficits | Requires complex technical device to produce injury | |
| Produces epileptiform EEG activity, including discharges, high-frequency oscillations, and seizures in some animals | ||
| Highly studied and reproducible | ||
| Can produce varying degrees of severity | ||
| Has been used in rodent (mouse/rat), swine, canine, and primate models | ||
| FPI | Produces similar histopathology to the human condition, including diffuse or focal injury, contusion, edema, progressive loss of gray matter, inflammation, and blood-brain barrier dysfunction | Varied incidence of epilepsy between research groups and cohorts |
| Increased seizure susceptibility to chemical convulsants | Prolonged time-course for the development of SRS and some comorbidities | |
| Decreased seizure threshold to electrical stimulation | Lacks some translation to therapeutic validity | |
| Demonstrates persistent sensori-functional and cognitive deficits | Requires complex technical device to produce injury | |
| Produces epileptiform EEG activity, including discharges, high-frequency oscillations, and seizures in some animals | Variation in injury can occur because pressure wave is highly sensitive to operational factors | |
| Highly studied and reproducible | ||
| Can produce varying degrees of severity | ||
| Cortical Undercut | Simple surgical procedure that produces hyperexcitability | Not widely studied |
| Inexpensive and relatively simple protocol | Failure to consistently produce spontaneous recurrent seizures | |
| Impact-Acceleration/Weight Drop Model | Inexpensive and relatively simple protocol | Not widely studied |
| Can produce varying degrees of severity | Difficulty with reliable reproducibility | |
| Focal injury with axonal injury and hemorrhage | Failure to consistently produce spontaneous recurrent seizures | |
| Blast Injury Model | Produces similar histopathology to the human condition, including diffuse or focal injury, intracranial hemorrhage, inflammation, and blood-brain barrier dysfunction | Not widely studied |
| Injury mechanism similar to military TBI | Failure to consistently produce spontaneous recurrent seizures | |
| Penetrating Ballisticlike Brain Injury Model | Injury mechanism close to human missile or bullet wound injury | Not widely studied |
| Inexpensive and relatively simple protocol | Needs standardization | |
| Canine Model | Conducted in a species that naturally develops epilepsy disorders | Not widely studied |
| Needs standardization | ||
| Large Animal Models (Pig, Etc.) | Species is an intermediate state between rodent and primates | Not widely studied |
| Needs standardization | ||
| Requires additional resources and time for surgeries and care |