Table 2.

Advantages and disadvantages of the in vitro human AKI models

Method	Advantages	Disadvantages	Reference
Primary cell lines	Intact genetic and phenotypic properties Used with real-time imaging techniques	Interdonor variability Short lifespan Unsuitable for transplantation Source issue	43 , 44 , 48
Immortalized cell lines	Long lifespan Less variability Easiest to culture	Absence of important transporters Least differentiated option available	53 , 54 , 160
Conditionally immortalized cell lines	Long lifespan Less variability Easy to culture Temperature-controlled state of proliferation	Absence of important transporters	57 , 58 , 63
Kidney organoids	System enabling more physiologic modeling Multiple cell types are represented so interactions occur Used with real-time imaging techniques Resources available online at gudmap.org	Highly variable results between cell lines, protocols, and batches Long culture time with a short usage span High cost Maturity level is fetal kidney Presence of off-target cell types Nonadult kidney cell types such as nephron progenitors are present	79 , 80 , 89 , 174
Kidney-on-a-chip	Fluid flow and sheer stress encourages differentiation Multicompartment systems for cell type crosstalk Low cell number eases setup	Uses specialized devices Bioengineering knowledge required Low cell number complicates scale-up and extraction	60 , 175 , 176