Table 7.

Illustrative and Explanatory variables

A Descriptive variables related to energy system	Source
PECON - Primary energy consumption (per capita), tons per capita	Eurostat
FECON - Final energy consumption tons per capita	Eurostat
EU - Energy use (kg of oil equivalent per capita)	Eurostat
FFEC - Fossil fuel energy consumption (% of total)	Eurostat
EAFC - Electricity available for final consumption (kWh per capita)—	Eurostat
SB - Share of biofuels in gross inland renewable energy consumption (%)	Eurostat
SSFF - Share of solid fossil fuels in gross available energy (%)	Eurostat
SHP - Share of hydro power in gross inland renewable energy consumption (%)	Eurostat
SSP - Share of solar photovoltaic in gross inland renewable energy consumption (%)	Eurostat
SNG - Share of natural gas in gross available energy (%)	Eurostat
SOPP - Share of oil and petroleum products (excluding biofuel portion) in gross available energy (%)	Eurostat
SRB - Share of renewables and biofuels in gross available energy (%)	Eurostat
SNRW - Share of non-renewable waste in gross available energy (%)	Eurostat
SNH - Share of nuclear heat in gross available energy (%)	Eurostat
SFF - Share of fossil fuels in gross available energy (%)	Eurostat
SST - Share of solar thermal in gross inland renewable energy consumption (%)	Eurostat
SWP - Share of wind power in gross inland renewable energy consumption (%)	Eurostat
EPSFFS - Electricity production from solid fossil fuels sources (% of total)	Eurostat
EPNGS - Electricity production from natural gas sources (% of total)	Eurostat
EPOPP - Electricity production from oil and petroleum products (excluding biofuel portion) sources (% of total)	Eurostat
EPRBS - Electricity production from renewables and biofuels sources (% of total)	Eurostat
EPHS - Electricity production from hydroelectric sources (% of total)	Eurostat
EPNH - Electricity production from nuclear heat (% of total)	Eurostat
EPOGC - Electricity production from oil, gas and coal sources (% of total)	Eurostat
EPROD - Energy productivity (Euro per kilogram of oil equivalent (KGOE))	Eurostat
PERBS - Electricity production from renewables and biofuels sources, excluding hydroelectric (% of total)	Eurostat
PERBK - Electricity production from renewables and biofuels sources, excluding hydroelectric (kWh) per capita	Eurostat

B Effort ratios to national target	Source
EF_GHG: Greenhouse gas emissions	Eurostat
EF_PEC: Primary energy consumption	Eurostat
EF_SREC: Share of renewable energy in final energy consumption	Eurostat

C Explanatory thematic variables of the discrimination models	Source
Economic performance
GDP - GDP per capita (constant price 2010)	World Bank
GDPGR - GDP growth rate	World Bank
UN - Unemployment rate (all 15–64)	Eurostat
Innovation system
PAT - Patents in environment-related technologies per million inhabitants 2017	OECD
SPAT - Share of environment-related technologies patents in total patents (%) 2017	OECD
EPBI - Environmental patent Balassa index 2017	OECD
R&D - Research and development expenditure (% of GDP)	World Bank
Trade performance
EDEP - Energy dependence measured as energy imports in % of energy uses	Eurostat
TRADE - Terms of trade measured as the ratio of export prices to import prices	Eurostat
ETRADE - Energy terms of trade measured as the ratio of energy exports (Mtoe) to energy import (Mtoe)	Eurostat
HTEX - High-technology exports (% of manufactured exports)	Word Bank
Policy mix design
ENT - Energy taxes (% of GDP)	Eurostat
ENVT - Total environmental taxes (% of GDP)	Eurostat
GR&D - Total government budget allocations for R&D (% of GDP)	Eurostat
GEPE - Governments’ environmental protection expenditures (% of GDP)	Eurostat
GEER&R - Governments’ environmental and energy R&D expenditures (% of GDP)	Eurostat

In the temporal DA on the sub-periods, we do not have the GEER&R data from 2000 to 2003, thus the variable is dropped and there are only 4 variables in the model