TABLE 3.

Spine.

Paper authors	Purpose	Assessments	Results	Benefits	Limitations	Year
Hyun Jin Park et al. Park et al. (2018)	Evaluate the educational effect of using a real-size 3D-printed spine model for training beginners of the free-hand pedicle screw instrumentation technique	2 novice surgeons who had no experience of free-hand pedicle screw instrumentation technique were asked to insert 10 pedicle screws for each lumbar spine model. The accuracy and duration of the operation will be recorded. The results of the latter 10 spine models were compared with those of the former 10 models to evaluate learning effect	The latter half of the models had significantly less violation than the former half, and the latter 10 spine models had significantly less time than the former 10 models	Using the model for training is helpful to improve the accuracy and speed of the trainee’s operation	The osseous feel may be different from the real pedicle	2018
Michael B. Gottschalk et al. Gottschalk et al. (2015)	To analyze the effect of surgical training using three-dimensional (3D) simulation on the placement of lateral mass screws in the cervical spine on either cadavers or sawbones	15 orthopedic residents, postgraduate year (PGY) 1–6, were divided into 3 groups. Group 1, control, did not receive any training, whereas Groups 2 and 3 received 3D navigational feedback as to the intended drill trajectory on sawbones and cadavers. Final test, all 3D images were deidentified and reviewed by a surgeon to determine trajectory accuracy	Groups sawbone and cadaver did better than the control group (p < 0.0001)	Training with 3D navigation significantly improved the ability of orthopedic residents to properly drill simulated lateral mass screws	Did not investigate whether training translated into improved operating room accuracy	2015
Dale J. Podolsky et al. Podolsky et al. (2010)	Assess the efficacy of a pedicle screw insertion simulator	28 residents from orthopedic surgery and neurosurgery were divided into patient and control groups. They both received standard training on pedicle screw insertion but the patient group received an additional 1-h session of training on the simulator. Qualitative feedback about the simulator was gathered from the trainees, and all pedicles screws physically inserted into the cadavers during the courses were evaluated through CT.	28% of the trainees who responded to the questionnaire and all fellows and staff surgeons felt the simulator to be a beneficial educational tool	The potential of the simulator to improve the teaching of difficult procedures, such as pedicle screw insertion	Comfort in using the simulator alone was limited	2010
William Clifton et al. Clifton et al. (2021)	A high-resolution segmentation and 3D-printing technique was investigated for the creation of a dynamic educational model	1.Investigation of segmentation and 3D printing technique validity through ex-vivo dynamic fluoroscopic assessment of a printed cervical spine model compared to parent patient DICOM imaging 2.Investigation of the educational value of a dynamic (malleable) cervical spine model compared to a static mode	The flexible 3D-printed do better in dynamic positioning and teaching the physiologic concepts of spinal canal change	Dynamic 3D-printed models is a cost-effective and novel educational tool	The absence of a simulated discoligamentous complex	2021