Table 2.
Mixed effect analysis of determinants of ANC among young women in sub-Saharan Africa
| Variables | Model O | Model I aOR [95% CI] |
Model II aOR [95% CI] |
Model III aOR [95% CI] |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Fixed effects | ||||
| Year of survey | ||||
| 2010 | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | ||
| 2011 | 1.82*** [1.54, 2.17] | 2.02*** [1.69, 2.40] | ||
| 2012 | 1.90*** [1.60, 2.25] | 2.96*** [2.42, 3.63] | ||
| 2013 | 4.26*** [3.48, 5.20] | 4.30*** [3.49, 5.29] | ||
| 2014 | 1.31*** [1.13, 1.52] | 2.01*** [1.69, 2.39] | ||
| 2015 | 1.70*** [1.44, 2.01] | 3.31*** [2.71, 4.14] | ||
| 2016 | 1.08 [0.93, 1.24] | 2.08*** [1.71, 2.52] | ||
| 2017 | 1.51*** [1.25, 1.82] | 2.87*** [2.27, 3.64] | ||
| 2018 | 1.41*** [1.23, 1.61] | 1.48*** [1.29, 1.70] | ||
| 2019 | 3.15*** [2.68, 3.71] | 5.13*** [4.29, 6.12] | ||
| Maternal age | ||||
| 15–19 | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | ||
| 20–24 | 1.25*** [1.16, 1.33] | 1.19*** [1.11, 1.28] | ||
| Maternal educational level | ||||
| No education | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | ||
| Primary | 1.43*** [1.33, 1.55] | 1.43*** [1.33, 1.55] | ||
| Secondary | 2.01*** [1.84, 2.19] | 1.81*** [1.66, 1.98] | ||
| Higher | 2.31*** [1.69, 3.17] | 1.90*** [1.38, 2.61] | ||
| Marital status | ||||
| Married | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | ||
| Cohabiting | 1.16*** [1.07, 1.26] | 1.13** [1.05, 1.23] | ||
| Maternal current working status | ||||
| Not working | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | ||
| Working | 1.14*** [1.08, 1.21] | 1.16*** [1.10, 1.23] | ||
| Partner’s age | ||||
| 15–24 | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | ||
| 25–34 | 1.06 [0.99,1.14] | 1.03 [0.96,1.11] | ||
| 35–44 | 1.15** [1.05, 1.27] | 1.09 [0.99, 1.20] | ||
| 45 + | 1.21** [1.06, 1.39] | 1.15* [1.00, 1.31] | ||
| Partner educational level | ||||
| No education | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | ||
| Primary | 1.34*** [1.24, 1.45] | 1.35*** [1.25, 1.46] | ||
| Secondary | 1.57*** [1.44, 1.71] | 1.49*** [1.37, 1.63] | ||
| Higher | 2.12*** [1.83, 2.46] | 1.90*** [1.63, 2.22] | ||
| Religion | ||||
| Christianity | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | ||
| Islamic | 0.96 [0.89, 1.04] | 0.84*** [0.77, 0.92] | ||
| African Traditional | 0.76* [0.61, 0.95] | 0.68*** [0.54, 0.85] | ||
| No religion | 0.79** [0.67, 0.95] | 0.70*** [0.58, 0.84] | ||
| Others | 0.68 [0.45,1.04] | 0.69 [0.45, 1.06] | ||
| Parity | ||||
| 1 | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | ||
| 2 | 0.76*** [0.71, 0.80] | 0.78*** [0.73, 0.83] | ||
| 3 | 0.68*** [0.63, 0.74] | 0.72*** [0.67, 0.78] | ||
| 4 or more | 0.64*** [0.57, 0.71] | 0.69*** [0.62, 0.78] | ||
| Ownership of health insurance | ||||
| No | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | ||
| Yes | 1.56*** [1.33, 1.84] | 1.47*** [1.25, 1.73] | ||
| Mass media exposure | ||||
| No | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | ||
| Yes | 1.44*** [1.36, 1.52] | 1.28*** [1.21, 1.36] | ||
| Person who usually decides on respondent’s healthcare | ||||
| Respondent alone | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | ||
| Respondent and partner | 0.98 [0.89, 1.08] | 0.97 [0.88, 1.08] | ||
| Partner alone | 0.92 [0.84, 1.02] | 0.92 [0.84, 1.02] | ||
| Someone else or other | 0.85 [0.65, 1.10] | 0.86 [0.66, 1.12] | ||
| Person who usually decides on large household purchases | ||||
| Respondent alone | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | ||
| Respondent and partner | 1.06 [0.95, 1.19] | 1.07 [0.96, 1.20] | ||
| Partner alone | 1.04 [0.94, 1.16] | 1.05 [0.95, 1.17] | ||
| Someone else or other | 1.12 [0.91, 1.40] | 1.08 [0.87, 1.35] | ||
| Person who usually decides on visits to family or relatives | ||||
| Respondent alone | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | ||
| Respondent and partner | 0.97 [0.89, 1.06] | 0.97 [0.89, 1.06] | ||
| Partner alone | 0.89* [0.81, 0.97] | 0.90* [0.82, 0.99] | ||
| Someone else or other | 0.79* [0.63, 0.99] | 0.79* [0.62, 0.99] | ||
| Barrier to healthcare | ||||
| No | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | ||
| Yes | 0.77*** [0.72,0.81] | 0.82*** [0.77, 0.87] | ||
| Wealth index | ||||
| Poorest | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | ||
| Poorer | 1.32*** [1.23, 1.42] | 1.20*** [1.12, 1.29] | ||
| Middle | 1.52*** [1.40, 1.64] | 1.27*** [1.17, 1.38] | ||
| Richer | 1.81*** [1.66, 1.98] | 1.42*** [1.30, 1.56] | ||
| Richest | 2.28*** [2.03, 2.56] | 1.64*** [1.45, 1.86] | ||
| Sex of household head | ||||
| Male | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | ||
| Female | 1.23*** [1.14, 1.32] | 1.10* [1.02, 1.18] | ||
| Residence | ||||
| Urban | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | ||
| Rural | 0.55*** [0.51, 0.60] | 0.77*** [0.71,0.84] | ||
| Subregions | ||||
| Southern | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | ||
| Central | 0.40*** [0.33, 0.49] | 0.47*** [0.37, 0.59] | ||
| Eastern | 0.42*** [0.35, 0.51] | 0.48*** [0.39, 0.60] | ||
| Western | 0.36*** [0.30, 0.43] | 0.94 [0.75, 1.18] | ||
| Random effect | ||||
| PSU variance (95% CI) | 0.136 [0.108 – 0.172] | 0.086 [0.068 – 0.109] | 0.105 [0.083 – 0.131] | 0.088 [0.069 – 0.111] |
| ICC | 0.039809 | 0.0254319 | 0.0308296 | 0.026065 |
| Wald chi-square | Reference | 2499.16*** | 918.37*** | 2878.27*** |
| Model fitness | ||||
| Log-likelihood | -29,399.808 | -26,819.808 | -28,261.064 | -26,509.159 |
| AIC | 58,803.62 | 53,723.62 | 56,544.13 | 53,120.32 |
| N | 43,786 | 43,786 | 43,786 | 43,786 |
| Number of clusters | 1,478 | 1,478 | 1,478 | 1,478 |
Exponentiated coefficients, 95% confidence intervals in brackets, aOR adjusted Odds Ratios, CI Confidence Interval, * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001; 1 = Reference category, PSU Primary Sampling Unit, ICC Intra-Class Correlation, AIC Akaike’s Information Criterion