Table 4.
Mixed effect analysis of determinants of PNC among young women in sub-Saharan Africa
| Variables | Model O | Model I aOR [95% CI] |
Model II aOR [95% CI] |
Model III aOR [95% CI] |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Fixed effects | ||||
| Year of survey | ||||
| 2010 | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | ||
| 2011 | 0.43*** [0.33, 0.57] | 0.48*** [0.36, 0.63] | ||
| 2012 | 0.23*** [0.18, 0.29] | 0.43*** [0.34, 0.56] | ||
| 2013 | 0.27*** [0.21, 0.35] | 0.23*** [0.18, 0.30] | ||
| 2014 | 0.13*** [0.11, 0.16] | 0.23*** [0.19, 0.29] | ||
| 2015 | 0.18*** [0.14, 0.23] | 0.42*** [0.32, 0.54] | ||
| 2016 | 0.05*** [0.04, 0.07] | 0.09*** [0.07, 0.11] | ||
| 2017 | 0.01*** [0.01, 0.02] | 0.02*** [0.01, 0.02] | ||
| 2018 | 0.05*** [0.04, 0.06] | 0.05*** [0.04, 0.06] | ||
| 2019 | 0.14*** [0.11, 0.17] | 0.23*** [0.18, 0.29] | ||
| Maternal age | ||||
| 15–19 | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | ||
| 20–24 | 1.28*** [1.18, 1.39] | 1.16*** [1.07, 1.26] | ||
| Maternal educational level | ||||
| No education | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | ||
| Primary | 1.28*** [1.17, 1.39] | 1.21*** [1.11, 1.32] | ||
| Secondary | 1.37*** [1.24, 1.51] | 1.30*** [1.17, 1.44] | ||
| Higher | 1.18 [0.91, 1.52] | 1.07 [0.82, 1.39] | ||
| Marital status | ||||
| Married | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | ||
| Cohabiting | 0.69*** [0.63, 0.75] | 0.90* [0.82, 0.99] | ||
| Maternal current working status | ||||
| Not working | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | ||
| Working | 1.20*** [1.13, 1.28] | 1.26*** [1.18, 1.34] | ||
| Partner’s age | ||||
| 15–24 | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | ||
| 25–34 | 0.97 [0.91, 1.05] | 0.98 [0.90, 1.06] | ||
| 35–44 | 0.94 [0.85, 1.04] | 0.96 [0.87, 1.06] | ||
| 45 + | 0.93 [0.80, 1.09] | 0.94 [0.80, 1.10] | ||
| Partner educational level | ||||
| No education | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | ||
| Primary | 1.11* [1.02, 1.21] | 1.08 [0.98, 1.18] | ||
| Secondary | 1.08 [0.99, 1.19] | 1.15** [1.05, 1.27] | ||
| Higher | 1.02 [0.88, 1.19] | 1.06 [0.91, 1.24] | ||
| Religion | ||||
| Christianity | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | ||
| Islamic | 0.88** [0.81, 0.96] | 0.76*** [0.69, 0.83] | ||
| African Traditional | 0.98 [0.75, 1.29] | 0.75* [0.57, 0.99] | ||
| No religion | 1.32** [1.09, 1.61] | 1.02 [0.83, 1.26] | ||
| Others | 0.38*** [0.24, 0.61] | 0.35*** [0.21, 0.59] | ||
| Parity | ||||
| 1 | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | ||
| 2 | 0.89*** [0.84, 0.95] | 0.94 [0.89, 1.01] | ||
| 3 | 0.79*** [0.73, 0.86] | 0.91* [0.83, 0.99] | ||
| 4 or more | 0.62*** [0.54, 0.71] | 0.76*** [0.66, 0.87] | ||
| Ownership of health insurance | ||||
| No | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | ||
| Yes | 1.54*** [1.29, 1.85] | 1.40*** [1.17, 1.69] | ||
| Mass media exposure | ||||
| No | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | ||
| Yes | 1.51*** [1.42, 1.60] | 1.40*** [1.32, 1.50] | ||
| Person who usually decides on respondent’s healthcare | ||||
| Respondent alone | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | ||
| Respondent and partner | 0.76*** [0.69, 0.84] | 0.87** [0.78, 0.96] | ||
| Partner alone | 0.70*** [0.64, 0.78] | 0.86** [0.77, 0.96] | ||
| Someone else or other | 0.72* [0.53, 0.98] | 0.84 [0.61, 1.17] | ||
| Person who usually decides on large household purchases | ||||
| Respondent alone | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | ||
| Respondent and partner | 1.14* [1.02, 1.29] | 1.06 [0.94, 1.20] | ||
| Partner alone | 1.13* [1.01, 1.27] | 1.04 [0.92, 1.17] | ||
| Someone else or other | 1.48** [1.13, 1.95] | 1.37* [1.04, 1.82] | ||
| Person who usually decides on visits to family or relatives | ||||
| Respondent alone | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | ||
| Respondent and partner | 1.09 [0.99, 1.19] | 1.06 [0.96, 1.17] | ||
| Partner alone | 0.83*** [0.76, 0.91] | 0.82*** [0.74, 0.90] | ||
| Someone else or other | 0.99 [0.76, 1.31] | 0.88 [0.66, 1.17] | ||
| Barrier to healthcare | ||||
| No | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | ||
| Yes | 0.78*** [0.73, 0.83] | 0.86*** [0.81, 0.92] | ||
| Wealth index | ||||
| Poorest | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | ||
| Poorer | 1.13** [1.05, 1.22] | 1.10* [1.01, 1.19] | ||
| Middle | 1.20*** [1.10, 1.30] | 1.08 [0.98, 1.18] | ||
| Richer | 1.33*** [1.21, 1.47] | 1.14* [1.02, 1.27] | ||
| Richest | 1.32*** [1.18, 1.48] | 1.09 [0.96, 1.25] | ||
| Sex of household head | ||||
| Male | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | ||
| Female | 1.21*** [1.13, 1.30] | 1.08 [1.00, 1.17] | ||
| Residence | ||||
| Urban | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | ||
| Rural | 0.70*** [0.63, 0.76] | 0.83*** [0.75, 0.91] | ||
| Subregions | ||||
| Southern | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | 1 [1.00, 1.00] | ||
| Central | 0.18*** [0.15, 0.22] | 0.20*** [0.16, 0.25] | ||
| Eastern | 0.34*** [0.28, 0.41] | 0.66*** [0.53, 0.82] | ||
| Western | 0.41*** [0.34, 0.50] | 0.93 [0.74, 1.17] | ||
| Random effect | ||||
| PSU variance (95% CI) | 0.311 [0.253—0.383] | 0.177 [0.140 – 0.225] | 0.318 [0.257–0.394] | 0.175 [0.139–0.220] |
| ICC | 0.0864322 | 0.051193 | 0.088206 | 0.0504016 |
| Wald chi-square | Reference | 3198.44*** | 626.28*** | 3706.80*** |
| Model fitness | ||||
| Log-likelihood | -28,519.644 | -24,610.945 | -27,772.427 | -23,857.225 |
| AIC | 57,043.29 | 49,305.89 | 55,566.85 | 47,816.45 |
| N | 43,786 | 43,786 | 43,786 | 43,786 |
| Number of clusters | 1,478 | 1,478 | 1,478 | 1,478 |
Exponentiated coefficients, 95% confidence intervals in brackets, aOR adjusted Odds Ratios, CI Confidence Interval, * p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, *** p < 0.001, 1 = Reference category, PSU Primary Sampling Unit, ICC Intra-Class Correlation, AIC Akaike’s Information Criterion