Table 1.
Participant characteristics (Means ± Standard Deviation).
| Exercise-Only | Gameplay control | VR-EFT | |
|---|---|---|---|
| n (female) | 13 (2) | 12 (3) | 18 (5) |
| Age [years] | 49.2 ± 11.0 | 52.8 ± 7.7 | 52.3 ± 9.6 |
| Education [years] | 14.3 ± 1.9 | 13.1 ± 3.8 | 12.7 ± 3.6 |
| Hispanic or Latino | 5 (33%) | 1 (7%) | 4 (17%) |
| Race | |||
| Caucasian | 8 (53%) | 8 (53%) | 11 (48%) |
| African American | 5 (33%) | 6 (40%) | 11 (48%) |
| Native American | 1 (7%) | 0 (0%) | 1 (4%) |
| Mixed Race | 1 (7%) | 1 (7%) | 0 (0%) |
| Combat Exposed, n(%) | 4 (27%) | 1 (7%) | 1 (4%) |
| GLTEQ Leisure Activity Score* | 26.9 ± 21.3 | 61.8 ± 38.3 | 42.6 ± 38.6 |
| Comorbid Substance Use Disorder, n(%) | 8 (53%) | 9 (60%) | 12 (52%) |
| BDI | 15.4 ± 11.3 | 16.1 ± 10.36 | 15.1 ± 10.8 |
| BAI | 15.1 ± 10.4 | 14.2 ± 10.6 | 14.5 ± 9.7 |
| AUDIT | 16.4 ± 7.8 | 16.8 ± 8.2 | 16.1 ± 7.8 |
| Drinks per Week$ | 30.8 ± 29.2 | 28.9 ± 30.9 | 24.7 ± 22.7 |
| Heavy Drinking Days per Week$ | 2.9 ± 2.7 | 2.8 ± 2.7 | 2.7 ± 2.6 |
| Obsessive Compulsive Drinking Scale | 13.7 ± 6.9 | 13.4 ± 8.2 | 10.1 ± 6.8 |
| Obsessive Subscale | 6.1 ± 4.2 | 5.1 ± 3.8 | 4.4 ± 3.2 |
| Compulsive Subscale | 7.6 ± 3.2 | 8.3 ± 4.8 | 5.7 ± 3.9 |
| Mild TBI | 12 (80%) | 11 (73%) | 18 (78%) |
| Moderate TBI | 0 | 2 (13%) | 2 (9%) |
| Severe TBI | 3 (20%) | 2 (13%) | 3 (13%) |
| TBI count total | 69 | 54 | 78 |
| Blunt Trauma | 27 | 26 | 36 |
| Blast | 12 | 3 | 12 |
| Fall | 20 | 21 | 19 |
| Motor Vehicle | 10 | 15 | 11 |
| Post-Injury Interval | 13.7 ± 13.4 | 13.9 ± 16.7 | 15.1 ± 15.2 |
| Neurobehavioral Symptom Inventory | 19.4 ± 13.1 | 22.5 ± 12.3 | 16.2 ± 15.1 |
| Vestibular | 2.3 ± 1.9 | 2.4 ± 2.0 | 1.9 ± 2.5 |
| Somatic | 5.3 ± 4.5 | 5.5 ± 3.9 | 3.9 ± 4.4 |
| Affective | 6.9 ± 5.7 | 8.1 ± 4.5 | 6.2 ± 5.6 |
| Cognitive | 4.9 ± 3.9 | 6.4 ± 4.7 | 4.3 ± 4.1 |
| RDS | 9.4 ± 2.1 | 9.7 ± 2.4 | 9.4 ± 2.5 |
| Validity-10 | 8.1 ± 5.7 | 9.1 ± 6.4 | 8.5 ± 5.6 |
Abbreviations: GLTEQ, Goden Leisure-Time Exercise Questionnaire; BDI, Beck Depression Inventory; BAI, Beck Anxiety Inventory; AUDIT, Alcohol Use Disorder Identification Test; TBI, traumatic brain injury; RDS, Reliable Digit Span; heavy drinking day (>4 standard alcoholic drinks for men, >3 standard alcoholic drinks for women). Drink consumption was averaged over 90 days preceding study consent. *p ≤ 0.05, $standard alcoholic drink is defined as containing 13.6 g of pure alcohol. Post-Injury Interval: years between most recent TBI and baseline assessment.