Table 2.
Secondary outcome: within group effects of cognitive function.
| Cognitive domain | Baseline Mean±SD | Week-4 Mean±SD | Week-8 Mean±SD | p-Value | β | 95% CI | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Working Memory (SS) | Exercise-Only$ | 9.2 ± 2.0 | 9.0 ± 2.5 | - | 0.219 | −0.07 | −0.77–0.63 |
| Gameplay Control$ | 9.5 ± 2.4 | 9.0 ± 2.9 | - | 0.402 | 0.75 | −1.11–2.61 | |
| VR-EFT$ | 9.2 ± 2.3 | 8.9 ± 2.6 | 9.0 ± 2.7 | 0.163 | −0.58 | −1.42–0.26 | |
| Visual Scanning (SS) | Exercise-Only | 9.1 ± 3.2 | 9.3 ± 3.3 | - | 0.432 | −0.52 | −1.93–0.89 |
| Gameplay Control | 11.4 ± 2.4 | 10.7 ± 2.7 | - | 0.219 | 0.97 | −0.67–2.60 | |
| VR-EFT# | 10.4 ± 3.1 | 10.0 ± 3.0 | 11.1 ± 2.5 | 0.020 | −1.54 | −2.78 to −0.29 | |
| Cognitive Flexibility (SS) | Exercise-Only | 9.4 ± 2.7 | 10.4 ± 1.7 | - | 0.027 | −1.30 | −2.42 to −0.18 |
| Gameplay Control | 8.3 ± 2.9 | 10.1 ± 2.3 | - | 0.050 | −1.55 | −3.09 to −0.01 | |
| VR-EFT# | 8.8 ± 2.5 | 10.3 ± 2.0 | 9.8 ± 2.3 | 0.815 | −0.06 | −0.64–0.51 | |
| Cognitive Inhibition (SS) | Exercise-Only | 8.1 ± 4.0 | 10.3 ± 3.6 | - | 0.004 | −2.42 | −3.91 to −0.95 |
| Gameplay Control | 10.1 ± 4.1 | 11.6 ± 2.1 | - | 0.462 | −0.55 | −2.16–1.06 | |
| VR-EFT# | 9.7 ± 4.1 | 11.0 ± 3.0 | 10.5 ± 3.3 | 0.907 | −0.04 | −0.82–0.73 | |
| Cognitive Inhibition-Switching (SS) | Exercise-Only | 8.7 ± 3.2 | 10.3 ± 2.2 | - | 0.093 | −1.51 | −3.31–0.29 |
| Gameplay Control$ | 10.3 ± 3.2 | 11.0 ± 1.9 | - | 0.693 | 0.20 | −0.89–1.29 | |
| VR-EFT# | 10.2 ± 3.0 | 10.6 ± 2.0 | 11.0 ± 2.3 | 0.018 | −0.90 | −1.63 to −0.17 | |
| Processing Speed (SS) | Exercise-Only | 9.1 ± 2.1 | 9.8 ± 1.8 | - | 0.051 | −0.92 | −1.85–0.01 |
| Gameplay Control | 10.2 ± 2.8 | 10.6 ± 1.9 | - | 0.858 | 0.07 | −0.73–0.86 | |
| VR-EFT# | 9.8 ± 2.2 | 10.2 ± 1.9 | 10.3 ± 2.1 | 0.533 | −0.22 | −0.96–0.52 | |
| Auditory-Verbal Immediate Recall | Exercise-Only | 38.5 ± 11.0 | 41.4 ± 14.6 | - | 0.342 | −2.86 | −9.18–3.45 |
| Gameplay Control | 36.4 ± 10.9 | 39.6 ± 16.1 | - | 0.618 | −1.91 | −10.08–6.25 | |
| VR-EFT# | 38.1 ± 11.5 | 40.5 ± 15.0 | 42.0 ± 12.2 | 0.909 | −0.09 | −4.65–5.19 | |
| Auditory-Verbal Delayed Recall | Exercise-Only | 36.4 ± 13.3 | 36.7 ± 16.8 | - | 0.909 | −0.38 | −7.53–6.77 |
| Gameplay Control | 35.1 ± 11.6 | 36.2 ± 16.6 | - | 0.970 | −0.14 | −8.32–8.03 | |
| VR-EFT# | 36.3 ± 12.6 | 36.5 ± 16.2 | 40.8 ± 14.2 | 0.542 | −1.59 | −7.01–3.83 | |
| Visuospatial Immediate Recall | Exercise-Only | 37.1 ± 11.1 | 42.2 ± 12.5 | - | 0.166 | −4.18 | −10.36–2.01 |
| Gameplay Control | 33.7 ± 11.7 | 43.3 ± 13.1 | - | 0.001 | −8.24 | −12.37 to −4.11 | |
| VR-EFT# | 36.2 ± 12.1 | 42.7 ± 12.5 | 42.2 ± 10.9 | 0.847 | −0.62 | −7.30–6.05 | |
| Visuospatial Delayed Recall | Exercise-Only | 38.3 ± 11.1 | 44.9 ± 14.5 | - | 0.101 | −4.80 | −13.81–1.43 |
| Gameplay Control | 36.9 ± 12.6 | 43.3 ± 11.6 | - | 0.063 | −4.86 | −10.04–0.32 | |
| VR-EFT,# | 38.5 ± 11.3 | 44.1 ± 12.8 | 41.5 ± 14.2 | 0.696 | 1.03 | −4.50–6.55 |
Abbreviations: SS, Scaled score; β, beta; CI, confidence interval; significant covariate predictor of $ Wechsler Test of Adult Reading, #baseline cognitive function; Auditory-Verbal and Visuospatial Recall scores are reported at standard t-scores; Baseline assessment scores for VR-EFT represent means ± standard deviations of the 23 participants who were allocated to Phase II.